20 Now there were some Greeks among those who went up to worship at the Feast. 21 They came to Philip, who was from Bethsaida in Galilee, with a request. "Sir," they said, "we would like to see Jesus." 22 Philip went to tell Andrew; Andrew and Philip in turn told Jesus.
23 Jesus replied, "The hour has come for the Son of Man to be glorified. 24 I tell you the truth, unless a kernel of wheat falls to the ground and dies, it remains only a single seed. But if it dies, it produces many seeds. 25 The man who loves his life will lose it, while the man who hates his life in this world will keep it for eternal life. 26 Whoever serves me must follow me; and where I am, my servant also will be. My Father will honor the one who serves me.
27 "Now my heart is troubled, and what shall I say? 'Father, save me from this hour'? No, it was for this very reason I came to this hour. 28 Father, glorify your name!" 29 Then a voice came from heaven, "I have glorified it, and will glorify it again." The crowd that was there and heard it said it had thundered; others said an angel had spoken to him.
30 Jesus said, "This voice was for your benefit, not mine. 31 Now is the time for judgment on this world; now the prince of this world will be driven out. 32 But I, when I am lifted up from the earth, will draw all men to myself." 33 He said this to show the kind of death he was going to die.
34 The crowd spoke up, "We have heard from the Law that the Christ will remain forever, so how can you say, 'The Son of Man must be lifted up'? Who is this 'Son of Man'?"
35 Then Jesus told them, "You are going to have the light just a little while longer. Walk while you have the light, before darkness overtakes you. The man who walks in the dark does not know where he is going. 36 Put your trust in the light while you have it, so that you may become sons of light." When he had finished speaking, Jesus left and hid himself from them.
Lift High the Tree
John 12:20-36
Sermon
by George Bass
Suddenly, we are a week ahead of our Lenten schedule. This story belongs to the Week of the Passion of our Lord, because it occurs sometime between the days we call Palm Sunday and Maundy Thursday. It was during that interval that a group of Gentiles, who were simply called Greeks, approached Philip with the request to see Jesus. Jesus must have been in some sort of seclusion pondering, no doubt, what was about to happen to him. His retort to Philip and Andrew, when he heard the request, certainly suggests that he has been making a life or death decision - and he has chosen to die. Just think about that today, and throughout the remainder of Lent. No one was going to take his life from him; Jesus was about to lay it down to carry out and fulfill God’s plan to reconcile people to himself.
A sign of our times appeared in recent newspaper headlines: "Doctors’ dilemma: The ethics of not prolonging life." Benjamin Weiser, a Washington Post reporter, wrote: "For eight weeks in 1979, Frederick Schwab, a 25-year-old medical student training in a Pennsylvania hospital cancer ward, braced himself each time he entered the rooms of his five dying patients. Especially Sarah’s." Sarah was dying a slow, painful death. "Her tiny, darkened room smelled of decay. Her pain seemed the worst. Her cheeks were sunken. She lay motionless in her bed, staring at the ceiling, whimpering as Schwab gingerly searched for one more vein from which to draw blood." Weiser says, "It wasn’t until the ninth week, Schwab recalls, that he saw a strip of yellow tape on her door." It had been there all along, but Schwab had not noticed it. The nurse whom he asked about it told him that it was a "no code" sign, and that "no code patients were not to be saved when their hearts stopped or their lungs failed. A decision had been made in advance," she said, "that the hospital resuscitation team, called the ‘code team,’ was not to be summoned."1 No one had ever told him about that. Schwab, almost by accident, learned that not all patients receive the full benefit of medical knowledge; those who are terminally ill may be allowed to die. A life-and-death decision has been made for them; their ultimate fate has been taken out of their hands. That is the "doctors’ dilemma": who should be kept alive and who should be permitted to die without employing extraordinary means to keep them alive a bit longer?
Jesus faced no such dilemma. The choice was his to make, not that of others. Not Herod’s, not Caiaphas’, not the other priests’ - it was his to determine his own fate when he was in the very prime of life. Only by dying (there was no other way) could the Father’s purpose for him and his life be completed. There was no other option, and, in this scene, it is evident that Jesus has made his decision. He will die as a common criminal, hanged upon a tree.
What happened to the Greeks and their request to see Jesus? We’ll never know whether he granted it and met with them, or not. But that’s not what is important today. The end is at hand. Jesus is soon to die and he wants his disciples to understand why he will allow death to overtake him. Jesus’ death on the cross is God’s radical way of "bringing forth fruit"; that is, turning his people away from sin and death and back to himself. Jesus taught with authority, and many listened and were convinced that the kingdom of God was indeed at hand. He worked many wonders and signs, and many believed that he was the Son of God, the Promised One. But the ultimate evidence of divine power and purpose in Jesus Christ was concentrated in his death and his resurrection. That was why he would lay down his life in perfect obedience and selflessness - that others might be saved for the Father through his love.
Ellen Goodman wrote a column at the beginning of this decade titled, "Survivalism: Giving up on humanity." She believes that the 70s were the era of "Self-Improvement," but that the 80s will be the years of "Self-Preservation." "Yes, indeed, fellow trendwatchers," she predicted, "the true religion of the decade is not going to be EST or evangelical, it’s going to be Survival. Already 50,000 self-proclaimed Survivalists from coast to coast are hunkering down for the Apocalypse. They aren’t preparing their souls to meet doom, they are preparing their bunkers to escape it." Goodman believes that what the hot tub was to the 70s, the bunker will be for the 80s - "the emotional escape hatch" to help people face the reality of the Bomb and the possibility of nuclear annihilation. She says, "Frankly, I’m spooked by the people who are sure The End is At Hand ... for everyone else ... While the rest of us try to solve problems, they put their money on the collapse. They bet it won’t be the righteous but the selfish who inherit the earth ... It’s the same old pathetic preaching of humanity’s defeat."2
Death is the enemy - always - except for Jesus Christ, who turned death into a friend through his own death outside the walls of Jerusalem. Alfred Lord Tennyson could only have been talking about Christ when he wrote:
He fought his doubts and gathered strength,
He would not make his judgment blind,
He faced the specters of the mind
And laid them; thus he came at length
To find a stronger faith his own,
And Power was with him in the night,
Which makes the darkness and the light,
And dwells not in the light alone.
Jesus knew that the Father would see him through that terrifying experience, not merely so that he could die courageously and heroically, but so that new life might burst forth all over the earth when God would vindicate him by raising him up on the third day. That’s how all people are to benefit by the death of Jesus Christ.
When Count Nicholas Zinzendorf was a young man, he had an experience in an art gallery that changed his life forever. He was born an aristocrat and had always known wealth and luxury, and he was an extremely gifted individual. Zinzendorf had been reared and trained for a diplomatic career in the Court at Dresden. Beyond all of this, it has been said of him that he was a child of God. One day, on a trip to Paris, he stopped for a rest in Dusseldorf; during his stay in the city, he visited the art gallery. There he caught sight of Sternberg’s painting of the crucified Jesus that he calls "Ecce hom*o." The artist had written two short lines in Latin beneath the painting:
Hoc feci pro te:
Quid facid pro me?
("This is what I did for you: what have you done for me?")
As the story goes, when his eyes met the eyes of the thorn-crowned Savior, he was filled with a sense of shame. He could not answer that question in a manner which would satisfy his own conscience. He stayed there for hours, looking at the painting of the Christ on the cross until the light failed. And when the time arrived for the gallery to be closed, he was still staring at the face of Christ, trying in vain to find an answer to the question of what he had done for Christ. He left the gallery at nightfall, but a new day was dawning for him. From that day on, he devoted his heart and soul, his life and his wealth - all that he had - to Christ, declaring, "I have but one passion; it is Jesus, Jesus only."3 The sight of the crucified One "high and lifted up" on the Tree made a sudden and permanent change in his life, and the resurrection bore fruit then and there in his heart and soul.
So it is, then, that the crucified Jesus "draws all people to himself" - because the cross concentrates the love and mercy of God the Father into one tremendous event, Jesus’ death and resurrection. It is not simply the crucified Jesus who draws people to himself; they would be attracted simply by his unselfishness and his humanitarian motives alone. But it is by the combination - death and resurrection, another "lifting up" by God this time - that Gentiles as well as Jews and all the people of the world can see Jesus. That’s why, it seems to me, that we need two radically different classes of crosses; one category will have a body on it - the dying or dead Christ, while the other will be the plain cross, symbol of the resurrection of our Lord. That’s why the Christus Victor cross came into use - with the living, vested, Christ-of-Easter superimposed upon it.
Not very long ago, I preached to a congregation in a contemporary church building I had never seen before. Just before I entered the pulpit, I happened to look up toward one of the wide wooden arches supporting the roof and was startled to see the shadow of the cross reflected upon it. At first, I didn’t realize what was happening, but I looked up toward a clerestory window near the roof and discovered that a cross had been built into the middle of it. The morning sun cast the shadow of the cross onto that arch and, later, it fell on the pews and the people in them. I wondered if it ever fell on the pulpit or the altar-table, and I realized that if and when it fell on the Table of the Lord, it would become an invisible crucifix and Christus Victor cross at once. That Tree and that Table bring us together as a believing community every week. And they invite the whole world to join us, in the name of Jesus Christ. Here is where people get to "see" Jesus - and enter into his presence for time and eternity.
Last summer, three Tibetan monks, who had traveled half way around the world to visit Benedictine and Cistercian monasteries, spent some time at St. John’s University and Monastery, Collegeville, Minnesota, less than 100 miles from my home. St. John’s was the fifth Benedictine monastery they visited - and the largest of all Benedictine communities. They were on a fact-finding mission for the Dalai Lama, which took them into homes, nursing homes, and factories, as well. Their interest in Catholicism stems from the help Roman Catholics gave them when they were forced from Tibet after the Chinese invasion of 1950; there were 760,000 monks in Tibet before that but only 300 remain there now. These three were among 400 monks who fled to India and were given sanctuary. No attempt is being made to convert them to the Roman Catholic faith, but one has to wonder what impact the death-resurrection, Tree-Tomb, faith of Christendom - and the monks they are meeting in these monasteries - will have upon them. Is it not likely that some of them will be drawn to the cross of Christ, and faith in him, through their experiences with Christians and their worship? And if they hear the good news preached and celebrated at the Table of the Lord, might they not be likely converts in spite of themselves and their faith in Buddha? "And I, if I be lifted up ..." Jesus said. These are no idle words.
And so, as we approach the climax of Lent and are soon to be confronted by the Tree and the Tomb, we take up the hymn which begins and ends with a refrain:
Lift high the cross, the love of Christ proclaim
Till all the world adore his sacred name.
And the invitation is sounded in song:
Come, Christians, follow where our captain trod,
Our king victorious, Christ, the Son of God.
Led on our way by this victorious sign,
The hosts of God in conqu’ring ranks combine.
Finally, we lift our prayer:
O Lord, once lifted on the glorious tree,
As thou hast promised, draw us all to thee.
So shall our song of triumph ever be:
Praise to the Crucified for victory!
Now, Holy Week may begin. And we will approach it and enter into the reliving of those last days in the life of Jesus Christ, singing,
Lift high the cross, the love of Christ proclaim
Till all the world adore his sacred name. 4
1. Reprinted in the Minneapolis Star and Tribune, July 24, 1983.
2. Ellen Goodman’s syndicated column was published in the Minneapolis Star and Tribune, November 19, 1980.
3. Weatherhead, Leslie D., Key Next Door - and Other London City Temple Sermons. (New York and Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1960).
4. Included in the Lutheran Book of Worship.
CSS Publishing Co., Inc., Tree, The Tomb, And The Trumpet, The, by George Bass
The group of God-fearing gentiles searches for Jesus at the Feast (12:20–22), and this prompts him to speak about his work of salvation for the whole world. Jesus now plainly says, “The hour has come for the Son of Man to be glorified” (12:23). Up until now, Jesus’s “hour” or “time” had always been in the future (2:4; 7:30; 8:20), but now his glorification (i.e., his death, resurrection, and exaltation) is at hand. Jesus’s death will result in life for many (12:24). Those who give up or lose their life in service to Jesus will find eternal life and a heavenly home (12:25–26; cf. Ma…
The Baker Bible Handbook by , Baker Publishing Group, 2016
20 Now there were some Greeks among those who went up to worship at the Feast. 21 They came to Philip, who was from Bethsaida in Galilee, with a request. "Sir," they said, "we would like to see Jesus." 22 Philip went to tell Andrew; Andrew and Philip in turn told Jesus.
23 Jesus replied, "The hour has come for the Son of Man to be glorified. 24 I tell you the truth, unless a kernel of wheat falls to the ground and dies, it remains only a single seed. But if it dies, it produces many seeds. 25 The man who loves his life will lose it, while the man who hates his life in this world will keep it for eternal life. 26 Whoever serves me must follow me; and where I am, my servant also will be. My Father will honor the one who serves me.
27 "Now my heart is troubled, and what shall I say? 'Father, save me from this hour'? No, it was for this very reason I came to this hour. 28 Father, glorify your name!" 29 Then a voice came from heaven, "I have glorified it, and will glorify it again." The crowd that was there and heard it said it had thundered; others said an angel had spoken to him.
30 Jesus said, "This voice was for your benefit, not mine. 31 Now is the time for judgment on this world; now the prince of this world will be driven out. 32 But I, when I am lifted up from the earth, will draw all men to myself." 33 He said this to show the kind of death he was going to die.
34 The crowd spoke up, "We have heard from the Law that the Christ will remain forever, so how can you say, 'The Son of Man must be lifted up'? Who is this 'Son of Man'?"
35 Then Jesus told them, "You are going to have the light just a little while longer. Walk while you have the light, before darkness overtakes you. The man who walks in the dark does not know where he is going. 36 Put your trust in the light while you have it, so that you may become sons of light." When he had finished speaking, Jesus left and hid himself from them.
The celebrations of the Jews are now echoed by an entirely unexpected interest among some Greeks in Jerusalem (12:20–36). This is unexpected because Greeks are Gentiles (though these may be proselytes) and unaccepted by Jews. John’s irony cannot be missed: when Jesus’s efforts to unveil himself to Israel have been exhausted, Greeks arrive, eager to see Jesus. Jewish reluctance is exceeded by Greek zeal. Mark’s Gospel follows a similar structure. In Mark the watershed is in 8:27–30, and from then on Jesus devotes himself exclusively to his disciples. But prior to this revelation at Caesarea Philippi, Jesus finds an unprecedented response among the Greeks (Mark 7:24–30; 7:31–37; 8:1–10). Once Judaism fails to embrace the signs of Christ, Gentiles are given the opportunity (Matt. 21:41–44; Luke 2:32; 4:25–27; Rom. 1:16).
Jesus’s response to Andrew and Philip’s report is extremely important. The “hour” that has been put off for years (cf. John 2:4; 7:6; 8:20) has now arrived (12:23). Jesus recognizes the culmination of all that he has been attempting in Judaism. The cross and death are all that remain (12:24). But in John it is not a death of disgrace and shame; Jesus will be glorified, and this will mysteriously result in great things. The same is true of his followers (12:23–26). Self-effacement and self-denial are the only pathways to finding the company of Jesus or the honor of the Father (cf. Matt. 10:37–39; Mark 8:34–38). The humanity of Jesus can be seen in how even he wrestles with this truth (John 12:27; cf. Mark 14:36). Strength is found here and later in Gethsemane, when he submits himself to God’s higher purposes. The glory of God is manifest when his servants persevere in temptations such as this and in ultimate trials (12:28–29). The cross will be the ultimate test for Jesus, and here in the midst of God’s glory Jesus himself will be glorified (17:1–5).
The crowds receive the confirming voice from heaven just as they received the signs (12:28–30). Throughout his Gospel, John’s view of revelation has taken shape: a sign from God is revelatory only when it is greeted by faith. The Book of Signs will only speak to those whom the Father is already giving into the Shepherd’s hand (6:44–45; 10:27–29).
It is now time for Jesus to define his hour of death and glory. It too will be a sign, but how will it be received? Can the average person accept that the world’s judgment will be inaugurated when one man is crucified (12:31–32)? This crowd cannot (12:34)—but neither could the disciples at this point (Mark 8:31–33; 9:30–32; 10:32–34). But fortunately the crowd stays with Jesus; they keep inquiring. The last question posed to Jesus is in John 12:34: “Who is this ‘Son of Man’?” In the previous chapter Martha could not comprehend all that Jesus revealed (11:21–27), but still she held on to the light she possessed. When confusion and uncertainty are at hand, John would not have us walk away in disbelief. Jesus now affirms the same (12:35–36). Continue to engage God! Embrace the light! Walk in it! Jesus’s disclosure of himself is finished (12:36). He now hides himself from public view because his signs are completed, and they are left for us to interpret.
The Baker Illustrated Bible Commentary by Gary M. Burge, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
The principle that the “whole world has gone after” Jesus (v. 19) finds immediate illustration in some Greeks who were among the worshipers at the festival (v. 20). Their request to see Jesus was directed at Philip (cf. 1:43–44), ceremoniously passed along by him to Andrew, and by the two of them to Jesus (vv. 21–22). These two disciples have been seen together twice before: first as Jesus’ agents in initially gathering a group of followers (1:35–45), and later as the two whose faith Jesus tested before the feeding of the five thousand (6:5–9). Again they are a team, this time in presenting to their Teacher the longings of the Gentile world and receiving from him the revelation, indirect though it may be, of how the Gentile world soon will see him.
In asking to see Jesus, the Greeks were merely requesting an interview, but Jesus has in mind a redemptive and universal vision (cf. 6:40: “For my Father’s will is that everyone who looks to the Son and believes in him shall have eternal life”). He therefore does not answer their question directly; the reader never learns whether or not the interview was granted. Instead, Jesus announces that his hour has come (contrast 2:4), the hour for the Son of Man to be glorified (v. 23). Only when he is glorified in death and resurrection will the Greeks (and all other Gentiles) be able to see him redemptively.
That the momentous hour was indeed the hour of death was implied in two earlier uses of the term in this Gospel. Twice Jesus had escaped death “because his time had not yet come” (7:30; 8:20). Now he speaks again of death, this time in the language of parable (v. 24). The parable, like several of Jesus’ parables of the kingdom of God in the Synoptics, is a parable of a growing seed (cf., e.g., Mark 4:1–9, 26–29, 30–32; Matt. 13:24–30. But Jesus, instead of being the sower who plants the seed (as, e.g., in Matt 13:37), is in this instance himself the kernel of wheat. It is he who must die, and by his death produce many seeds. His death will make possible a rich harvest, in that it will bring salvation to the Gentiles.
The sequel to verse 24 is verse 32. When verses 24 and 32 are placed side by side, they look like two stanzas of a single pronouncement:
(a) I solemnly assure you, unless the grain of wheat falls to the earth and dies, it remains just a grain of wheat. But if it dies, it produces much fruit (v. 24, NAB).
(b) And I—once I am lifted up from the earth—will draw all men to myself (v. 32, NAB).
The symmetry between (a) and (b) centers on the contrast between the phrases “to the earth,” in the first, and “from the earth,” in the second. The contrast stands out against the formal similarity of the two stanzas. Both are built around conditional clauses. The first begins with a negative “if” (i.e., “unless”) clause reminiscent of others in this Gospel (e.g., 3:3, 5; 6:53) and concludes with a positive “if” clause (“but if it dies, it produces much fruit”). The positive conditional form (“once [i.e., “if”] I am lifted up”) carries over into the second stanza, which completes the thought of the first and at the same time interprets it. The kernel of wheat is now, by the emphatic “I,” specifically identified as Jesus, while the reference to producing many seeds, or “much fruit,” is defined as drawing everyone to himself. Jesus, the “grain of wheat,” falls “to the earth” in death and is “lifted up from the earth” in resurrection, like a plant in its full growth. It appears that Jesus has applied a parable of growth, similar to those found in the synoptic Gospels, to his own Passion and resurrection.
What Jesus and the earliest forms of the tradition have done, however, is not necessarily identical to what the Gospel writer has done. In the Gospel as it stands, verses 24 and 32 are not joined together, and verse 32 is interpreted as referring not to Jesus’ resurrection but to his death on the cross (v. 33; cf. 3:14). The Gospel writer is not so much interested in a sequence (i.e., first Jesus died; then he rose), as in focusing significantly on the death of Jesus, and on that alone. He sees Jesus’ death, to be sure, from the perspective of the resurrection, but he is not concerned with the resurrection itself as a distinct event. Because he knows and believes that Jesus was raised from the dead, he is able to interpret Jesus’ death on the cross as a victory, a “glorification.” He superimposes the contours of the resurrection, and its significance, on the crucifixion. Seen in this way, a dark tragedy becomes a glorious victory. The gruesome “lifting up” of Jesus on a cross becomes his exaltation to a place of honor in God’s presence (cf. Acts 2:33; 5:31) and his vindication before the whole world. By it he will grant eternal life to “everyone who believes” (3:15) and will draw all men to himself (v. 32).
To the Gospel writer, verses 24 and 32 are two different images for the same reality, the death of Jesus, and both make the point that latent in the death itself is the power and reality of the resurrection. The paradox inherent both in nature and in grace is that life comes only through death (cf. 1 Cor. 15:36). This paradox is brought to bear, not only on Jesus’ experience, but on that of his disciples (v. 25). Just as in Mark’s Gospel the first prediction of the Passion was immediately followed by teaching on discipleship (Mark 8:31–38), so here the announcement of Jesus’ hour becomes the basis for a decisive call to self-denial and servanthood (vv. 25–26). Even death cannot separate Jesus from his disciples if, like Mary (cf. vv. 3–8), they serve him (v. 26). Serving Jesus in the new situation to come, however, will be defined not merely by Mary’s example, but by Jesus’ own (cf. 13:1–17). To serve him is to follow or imitate him (v. 26), that is, to be the same kind of servant that he was (cf. 13:13–16). Jesus later puts this teaching in the context of being hated and persecuted by the world (15:18–21). He never tells his disciples to hate the world in return, but he does tell them to hate their life in this world and so gain eternal life (v. 25). What is required of a disciple in the face of the Teacher’s death is to give up the vested interest he or she has in the world and follow Jesus in the way of servanthood. When that requirement is met, Jesus says, where I am, my servant also will be (v. 26a). He does not specify where that will be; all that his disciples need to know for the moment is that they will be with him and that his love is stronger than death. Later he will make it clear that they will join him in the Father’s presence (14:1–3) and there see in its fullness the glory he received from the Father (17:24). For now he offers only the general assurance that my Father will honor the one who serves me (v. 26b). These verses afford a glimpse of issues that will be addressed in greater detail in the farewell discourses.
Having spoken to his disciples (vv. 22–26), Jesus will now turn his attention to the Father (vv. 27–28), and finally to the crowd (presumably the “large crowd” of vv. 12 and 18) standing around him (vv. 29–36). John’s Gospel has no record of Jesus’ prayer at Gethsemane (by the time Jesus is in the garden, the issue is already settled, 18:11). The closest equivalent to the synoptic Gethsemane is his prayer out of a troubled heart (v. 27) concerning the hour that is upon him. Momentarily undecided as to what his prayer should be, Jesus first asks that the hour of suffering might not come, but immediately withdraws that request in favor of another: Father, glorify your name (vv. 27–28a; cf. Mark 14:36: “Father … everything is possible for you. Take this cup from me. Yet not what I will, but what you will”). What changes his petition is the acknowledgment that it was for this very reason I came to this hour (v. 27). Just as in Mark, the decisive factor is his commitment “to do the will of him who sent me and to finish his work” (4:34). Jesus has “come down from heaven not to do my will but to do the will of him who sent me” (6:38). The prayer he must choose, therefore, is “your will be done,” or (its equivalent) Father, glorify your name! (v. 28a).
A reader familiar with the Lord’s Prayer could almost imagine that Jesus was starting to recite it, in a form close to that of Luke (“Father, hallowed be your name,” Luke 11:2). If that was the case, he never finished, for a voice from heaven answered immediately: I have glorified it, and will glorify it again (v. 28b). The two “glorifications” are surprising, but emerge as distinct from one another in two subsequent passages as well (13:31–32; 17:4–5). God brings glory to his name, first, through the obedience of his Son (signaled by the obedient prayer just uttered) and, second, by reuniting the Son to himself through death and resurrection (cf. esp. 17:5). None of this made sense to the onlookers. What impressed them was the power and majesty of the voice (v. 29), not what the voice was saying. And yet, like Jesus’ dramatic prayer at the raising of Lazarus (11:41–42), the voice was for their sake and not his (v. 30). Like that prayer, it was a bridge between Jesus and heaven, an unusually concrete example of “heaven open and the angels of God ascending and descending on the Son of Man” (1:51) and a reminder that Jesus was acting not on his own, but always and only on the Father’s initiative.
As he turns his attention to the crowd, Jesus announces to them the coming of the hour, just as he had earlier announced it to the disciples (cf. v. 23). Because the hour is now seen in relation to the world rather than to Jesus personally, the emphasis is on judgment instead of glory (v. 31; cf. 3:19; 5:22, 27). Although John’s Gospel records none of the incidents found in the other Gospels in which Jesus cured those who were demon possessed, it is striking that the judgment of the world is described here as one great exorcism: Now the prince of this world will be driven out (the term commonly used for the exorcism of demons, e.g., in Mark 1:39; Matt. 10:8; 12:28). The interest of this Gospel is not in a plurality of demonic forces but solely in the devil, Jesus’ one great Adversary and the prince of this world (cf. 14:30; 16:11). The passage is reminiscent of Jesus’ parable in the three other Gospels about his conflict with “Satan” or “Beelzebul, the chief [i.e., ruler] of the demons”: “No one can enter a strong man’s house and carry off his possessions unless he first ties up the strong man. Then he can rob his house” (Mark 3:27/Matt. 12:29; cf. Luke 11:21–22). The imagery in John is different—Satan is driven out rather than bound—but the reality is much the same. Jesus defeats the prince of this world and sets his captives free. When I am lifted up from the earth, he says, I … will draw all men to myself (v. 32).
When the “lifting up” is understood as Jesus’ resurrection (i.e., when v. 32 is paired with v. 24), the drawing of everyone to himself could be understood as the raising of the dead at the last day through the power of the Risen One (cf. 5:25–29; 6:39–40, 44, 54). But when the “lifting up” is understood primarily with reference to the crucifixion (as v. 33 demands), the drawing of everyone is more naturally seen as mission, the transformation of a single grain into many seeds (v. 24) or the gathering of scattered sheep into “one flock” (10:16; cf. 11:52). In John’s Gospel it is by the cross—followed and completed by resurrection, to be sure, but essentially by the cross—that mission becomes reality (cf. 10:15–16; 11:51–52; 12:23–25). The cross is like a magnet to which all (Jew and Greek alike) are drawn. Whether it is Jesus (v. 32) or the Father (cf. 6:44) who draws people, it is to the cross, and the crucified one, that they come. To be drawn to the cross is to be drawn into the pattern of discipleship represented in verses 24–26—or in 6:53–58, under the metaphor of eating Jesus’ flesh and drinking his blood.
The crowd seemed to hear nothing of what was involved in Jesus’ promise to draw everyone to himself. Only the “lifting up” caught their attention. But when they heard “lifting up,” did they think of exaltation, or crucifixion? The meaning of verse 34 hinges on the answer. If they understood the “lifting up” as exaltation (cf. Acts 2:33; 5:31), then they are saying: The Law tells us that the Messiah is to be the Exalted One who endures forever and rules over Israel, but you say it is this mysterious “Son of Man” (i.e., their problem is with the term Son of Man). But if they understand the “lifting up” as crucifixion, they are saying: The Law tells us that the Messiah will endure forever, but you say the “Son of Man” (by which we assume you mean the Messiah) will die by crucifixion (i.e., their problem is with the notion of a dying Messiah).
The second alternative is the more likely. The crowd’s terminology echoes more closely Jesus’ words in 3:14 (“the Son of Man must be lifted up”) than his words in the present context (neither the title Son of Man nor the verb must are found in v. 32). The analogy of the snake on a pole in the desert made it clear that 3:14 referred to the crucifixion, and the crowd’s use of the language of that verse (especially right after the parenthetical comment of v. 33) demonstrates that this is their understanding here as well. How they came to this conclusion on the basis of what Jesus actually said in verse 32 is more difficult to determine. They did not, after all, have the benefit of the narrator’s comment in verse 33! But in any case, the exchange in verse 34 serves to remind the readers of the Gospel that Jesus’ Jewish contemporaries had as much difficulty with the idea of a crucified Messiah as did the Jews with whom they themselves came in contact.
Jesus’ last words to the crowd continue to emphasize his impending death. He uses the familiar imagery of light and darkness in much the same way as in 9:4–5 and 11:9–10; that is, the light is the time during which Jesus is on earth, and the darkness is the period after his departure. But the two previous passages used this imagery to accent Jesus’ own urgency about his mission, whereas the present passage uses it to underscore the urgency for his hearers to believe in him before it is too late. The light is more than simply the time when Jesus is present; the light is Jesus himself, the one in whom they must believe.
The outcome of this last appeal—and of all the appeals that preceded it—will be sketched in verses 37–50. The crowd of bystanders to whom Jesus speaks is seen by the narrator as representative of all who heard Jesus’ message in his earthly ministry as well as all who heard it since that time. The metaphor of the light and darkness is flexible, not fixed, in its application. The darkness did not fall once and forever when Jesus went away. The light is still shining (cf. v. 46; 1:5; 8:12), and the words of verses 35–36 are as appropriate in the narrator’s world (and ours) as in the historical setting of Jesus’ last Passover. When Jesus left and hid himself from the crowd (v. 36b), a particular sequence in his self-revelation came to an end (cf. 8:59), but the story goes on. The rest of the story will be seen largely through the eyes of his disciples, who will continue to hold before the world the urgent appeal of verses 35–36.
Additional Notes
12:20 Greeks: The term refers to Gentiles by birth, not to Greek-speaking Jews (cf. 7:35). Those in view here may have been actual converts to Judaism, or simply Gentiles who respected and worshiped the God of the Jews (like the Ethiopian eunuch in Acts 8:27, or Cornelius in Acts 10:2). In any case, they were among the crowds worshiping at the Jewish Passover.
12:23 Replied: that is, to Philip and Andrew, not the Greeks. Vv. 23–26 are directed to the disciples, not outsiders, and deal with issues related to discipleship.
12:24 And dies: The use of the verb dies to describe the germination of a seed is not intrinsic to the metaphor. The choice of this word is perhaps occasioned by the image of falling to the ground; the word dies, with its intimation of human death, anticipates v. 25.
12:33 To show: lit., “signified” or “gave a sign.” The verb is related to the characteristic noun for “sign” or “miracle” in this Gospel. To the Gospel writer, the “lifting up” of Jesus on the cross is a sign of his victory over death. In referring to this event verbally, Jesus himself was revealing the sign in advance (cf. 18:32, as well as the verbal sign to Peter, regarding Peter’s death, in 21:19).
12:34 We have heard from the Law that the Christ will remain forever: The reference is to the Scriptures generally, not to a legal code or to the Pentateuch in particular (cf. perhaps Ps. 110:4 or Isa. 9:6–7). The belief that the Messiah would remain forever was not confined to those who conceived of him as a supernatural or transcendent figure. The crowd may have had in mind passages in which God promised that the messianic line of descendants of King David would never fail (e.g., 2 Sam. 7:13; Ps. 132:10–12; and esp. Ps. 89:36, which is closest of all to the present passage in actual terminology). That Jesus too will remain forever despite being lifted up in death is seen in this Gospel in a parabolic context in 8:35.
12:35 Walk: This verb stands parallel to “believe” or “continue to believe” (present tense) in verse 36, both verbs being qualified by the clause while you have the light. This “continuing” or “walking” is not a neutral stance toward Jesus, but a life lived in faith (cf. 8:12). The use of the present tense does not here imply that the crowd already believed. Jesus’ point is simply that for the time being they have the light (v. 35) because he is present among them, and he wants this to continue even when he has (physically) gone away.
Understanding the Bible Commentary Series by J. Ramsey Michaels, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Direct Matches
One of the twelve apostles and brother of Peter. Andrew came from Bethsaida in Galilee (John 1:44), though he lived and worked with Peter in Capernaum as a fisherman (Matt. 4:18). At first a disciple of John the Baptist, he, with an unnamed disciple (possibly John), transferred allegiance to Jesus (John 1:35 40). His first recorded act was to bring his brother to Jesus (John 1:41–42). Subsequently, he was called by Jesus to become a permanent follower (Matt. 4:19) and later was appointed as an apostle (Matt. 10:2).
The English word “angel” refers to nonhuman spirits, usually good. The biblical words usually translated “angel” mean “messenger” and can refer to one sent by God or by human beings. A messenger must be utterly loyal, reliable, and able to act confidentially (Prov. 13:17). The messenger speaks and acts in the name of the sender (Gen. 24).
Messengers sent by God are not always angels. Yahweh’s prophets were his messengers (Hag. 1:13), as were priests (Mal. 2:7).
A town located on the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee, near the Jordan River, about five miles east of Capernaum, although the precise location is disputed.
Bethsaida is the third-most-mentioned town in the Gospels, and it was at the heart of Jesus’ ministry. It was the birthplace of Peter and Andrew and the home of Philip (John 1:44; 12:21). Jesus performed several miracles at or near the town. Near Bethsaida Jesus walked on water (Mark 6:4552) and fed the five thousand (6:30–44). In Bethsaida Jesus healed a blind man (8:22–26). Unfortunately, the miracles do not seem to have had much effect on the inhabitants, and in Matt. 11:21 // Luke 10:13 Jesus denounces the city along with Chorazin for its lack of repentance.
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesus followers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christ embodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in human history.
Birth and childhood. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem during the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesus was probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’s death (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of a virginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18; Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governor Quirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place in Bethlehem (2:15). Both the census and the governorship at the time of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars. Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to either confirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must be determined on the basis of one’s view regarding the general reliability of the Gospel tradition.
On the eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keeping with the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus” (Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home of his parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel of Luke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth in strength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke also contains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Baptism, temptation, and start of ministry. After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke 3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring to him as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instant ministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into the wilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that the temptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Luke identify three specific temptations by the devil, though their order for the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesus was tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine intervention after jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’s kingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation, quoting Scripture in response.
Matthew and Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum in Galilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13; Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirty years of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity or perhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of the Levites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning of Jesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples and the sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Galilean ministry. The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and around Galilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that the kingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment of prophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ first teaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30); the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for his calling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection and suffering.
All the Gospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in his Galilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke 5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioning of the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers is recorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministry is the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke 6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, in particular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synoptics focus on healings and exorcisms.
During Jesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with his identity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority (Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family (3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner of Beelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesus told parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growing kingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humble beginnings (4:1–32).
The Synoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful. No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority or ability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized many demons (5:1–13), raised the dead (5:35–42), fed five thousand (6:30–44), and walked on water (6:48–49).
In the later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew and traveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are not written with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns to Galilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fear resolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee, where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ disciples with lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed the Pharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents (7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demanding a sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, who confessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus did provide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesus withdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician woman requested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sent only to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans had long resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality that allotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere “crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Even the dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,” Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-mute man in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’s confession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’ travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The city was the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judean ministry. Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry as he resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually led to his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem into three phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27). The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of the journey. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, and the demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem (Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45; Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journey toward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvation and judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase of the journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are the main themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Social conflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposte interactions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel (Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomic feathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who had little value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16; Luke 18:15–17).
Passion week, death, and resurrection. Each of the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with the crowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark 11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Luke describes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during which Jesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
In Jerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17). Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because the whole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “began looking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segment of Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’ authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions (12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation (12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s own destruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, Judas Iscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’ arrest (14:10–11).
At the Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a new covenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29; Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned the disciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark 14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and later he prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agony and submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42; Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial, crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15; Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18). Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission by making disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8) and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return (Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
Israel shared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. This worldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon the primeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having four rims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rims were sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters. God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth and shaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:1213).
Israel’s promised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen. 13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing, fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orienting points for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise, “flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27). Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity and judgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationship with God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; this could ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits” people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).
For Israel, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen. 15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithful obedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen. 18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was the supreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev. 25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance” to give (1Sam. 26:19; 2Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). The Levites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did the other tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20; Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter and to occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3). Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when they accused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing with milk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however, no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance” (Josh. 13:1).
“The fall” refers to the events of the first human couple’s sin in the garden of Eden (Gen. 23). Although the word “fall” does not occur in the account, Christians have used the term to describe it, taking their cues from Paul’s writings (esp. Rom. 5:12–21). The term is important because it reflects an interpretation that the events in the garden are the entrance of human sin and that the sin has universal effects on humankind.
People in the Bible were family-centered and staunchly loyal to their kin. Families formed the foundation of society. The extended family was the source of people’s status in the community and provided the primary economic, educational, religious, and social interactions.
Marriage and divorce. Marriage in the ancient Near East was a contractual arrangement between two families, arranged by the bride’s father or a male representative. The bride’s family was paid a dowry, a “bride’s price.” Paying a dowry was not only an economic transaction but also an expression of family honor. Only the rich could afford multiple dowries. Thus, polygamy was minimal. The wedding itself was celebrated with a feast provided by the father of the groom.
The primary purpose for marriage in the ancient Near East was to produce a male heir to ensure care for the couple in their old age. The concept of inheritance was a key part of the marriage customs, especially with regard to passing along possessions and property.
Marriage among Jews in the NT era still tended to be endogamous; that is, Jews sought to marry close kin without committing incest violations (Lev. 18:617). A Jewish male certainly was expected to marry a Jew. Exogamy, marrying outside the remote kinship group, and certainly outside the ethnos, was understood as shaming God’s holiness. Thus, a Jew marrying a Gentile woman was not an option. The Romans did practice exogamy. For them, marrying outside one’s kinship group (not ethnos) was based predominantly on creating strategic alliances between families.
Greek and Roman law allowed both men and women to initiate divorce. In Jewish marriages, only the husband could initiate divorce proceedings. If a husband divorced his wife, he had to release her and repay the dowry. Divorce was common in cases of infertility (in particular if the woman had not provided male offspring). Ben Sira comments that barrenness in a woman is a cause of anxiety to the father (Sir. 42:9–10). Another reason for divorce was adultery (Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18). Jesus, though, taught a more restrictive use of divorce than the OT (Mark 10:1–12).
Children and parenting. Childbearing was considered representative of God’s blessing on a woman and her entire family, in particular her husband. In contrast to this blessing, barrenness brought shame on women, their families, and specifically their husbands.
Children were of low social status in society. Infant mortality was high. An estimated 60percent of the children in the first-century Mediterranean society were dead by the age of sixteen.
Ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean societies exhibited a parenting style based on their view of human nature as a mixture of good and evil tendencies. Parents relied on physical punishment to prevent evil tendencies from developing into evil deeds (Prov. 29:15). The main concern of parents was to socialize the children into family loyalty. Lack of such loyalty was punished (Lev. 20:9). At a very early stage children were taught to accept the total authority of the father. The rearing of girls was entirely the responsibility of the women. Girls were taught domestic roles and duties as soon as possible so that they could help with household tasks.
Family identity was used as a metaphor in ancient Israel to speak of fidelity, responsibility, judgment, and reconciliation. In the OT, the people of Israel often are described as children of God. In their overall relationship to God, the people of Israel are referred to in familial terms—sons and daughters, spouse, and firstborn (Exod. 4:22). God is addressed as the father of the people (Isa. 63:16; 64:8) and referred to as their mother (Isa. 49:14–17).
The church as the family of God. Throughout his ministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a call to loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26), a call to fictive kinship, the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50; Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call to community. Entrance into the community was granted through adopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and the initiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–63; John 1:12; 3:16; 10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9). Jesus’ presence as the head of the community was eventually replaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18). Through the Spirit, Jesus’ ministry continues in the community of his followers, God’s family—the church. See also Adoption.
Literally, fruit is the seed-bearing part of a plant. It constitutes an important part of the diet in the ancient Near East. Common fruits are olives, grapes, and figs, though many other varieties of fruit are also available, including apples, apricots, peaches, pomegranates, dates, and melons. Fruit trees play a prominent role as a food source in God’s creation and preparation of the garden of Eden (Gen. 13). The law prohibits the Israelites from cutting down their enemy’s fruit trees (Deut. 20:19). The abundance of fruit trees characterizes the land that God has prepared for Israel (Deut. 8:8; Neh. 9:25) as well as the final restoration (Ezek. 47:12; Joel 2:22; Rev. 22:2).
One aspect of fruit is that it grows from a plant. This use of the term is often extended to represent what emerges from something else. Thus, fruit may represent offspring, whether human or animal (Deut. 7:13; 28:4), one’s actions (Matt. 7:16–20), the result of one’s actions or choices (Prov. 1:31; 10:16; Jer. 17:10), or words coming from one’s mouth (Prov. 12:14; Heb. 13:15). In the NT especially, producing much fruit symbolizes performing deeds that are pleasing to God (Matt. 3:8; 13:23; Mark 4:20; John 15:16; Rom. 7:4; Col. 1:10). Those who live by the Spirit produce the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23). The apostle Paul speaks of the first converts in a particular region as being firstfruits, probably referring to their conversion as the result of the gospel being preached in the area (Rom. 16:5; 2Thess. 2:13).
The northern region of Israel. Determining the region’s precise boundaries is difficult, but in Jesus’ time it appears to have encompassed an area of about forty-five miles north to south and twenty-five miles east to west, with the Jordan River and the Sea of Galilee forming the eastern border. Josephus divides the region into Upper and Lower Galilee. Upper Galilee contains elevations of up to about four thousand feet and is composed mostly of rugged mountains, while Lower Galilee reaches a maximum height of about two thousand feet and is characterized by numerous fertile valleys. Lower Galilee was the site of most of Jesus’ ministry.
Galilee appears several times in the OT (e.g., Josh. 20:7; 1Kings 9:11; 1Chron. 6:76). It was part of the land given to the twelve tribes (Josh. 19). Since Galilee was distant from Jerusalem, which played the most prominent part in Jewish history, much of its history is not mentioned in the OT. Many of the references that do occur are military references, such as Joshua’s defeat of the kings at the waters of Merom (Josh. 11:19) and the Assyrian removal of the northern kingdom of Israel (Isa. 9:1). However, its great beauty, particularly of mountains such as Carmel, Hermon, and Lebanon, was the source of numerous images and metaphors in the poetic and prophetic literature (e.g., Ps. 133:3; Isa. 33:9; 35:2; Jer. 46:18).
Galilee figures more prominently in the NT. Jesus came from Nazareth in Galilee and conducted much of his early ministry there. Luke specifically identifies Galilee as the place where Jesus’ ministry began before spreading to Judea (Luke 23:5; Acts 10:37). Galilee is also portrayed as the place where Jesus will reunite with his disciples following the resurrection (Mark 16:7) and where he gives them the Great Commission (Matt. 28:16–20).
Physiologically, the heart is an organ in the body, and in the Bible it is also used in a number of metaphors.
Metaphorically, the heart refers to the mind, the will, the seat of emotions, or even the whole person. It also refers to the center of something or its inner part. These metaphors come from the heart’s importance and location.
Mind. The heart refers to the mind, but not the brain, and in these cases does not involve human physiology. It is a metaphor, and while the neurophysiology of the heart may be interesting in its own right, it has no bearing on this use of language. Deuteronomy 6:5 issues the command to love God with all one’s heart, soul, and strength. When the command is repeated in the Gospels, it occurs in three variations (Matt. 22:37; Mark 12:30; Luke 10:27). Common to all three is the addition of the word “mind.” The Gospel writers want to be sure that the audience hears Jesus adding “mind,” but this addition is based on the fact that the meaning of the Hebrew word for “heart” includes the mind.
The mental activities of the metaphorical heart are abundant. The heart is where a person thinks (Gen. 6:5; Deut. 7:17; 1Chron. 29:18; Rev. 18:7), where a person comprehends and has understanding (1Kings 3:9; Job 17:4; Ps. 49:3; Prov. 14:13; Matt. 13:15). The heart makes plans and has intentions (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Prov. 20:5; 1Chron. 29:18; Jer. 23:20). One believes with the heart (Luke 24:25; Acts 8:37; Rom. 10:9). The heart is the site of wisdom, discernment, and skill (Exod. 35:34; 36:2; 1Kings 3:9; 10:24). The heart is the place of memory (Deut. 4:9; Ps. 119:11). The heart plays the role of conscience (2Sam. 24:10; 1John 3:2021).
It is often worth the effort to substitute “mind” for “heart” when reading the Bible in order to grasp the mental dimension. For example, after telling the Israelites to love God with all their heart, Moses says, “These commandments that I give you today are to be upon your hearts” (Deut. 6:6). Reading it instead as “be on your mind” changes our perspective, and in this case the idiom “on your mind” is clearer and more accurate. The following verses instruct parents to talk to their children throughout the day about God’s words. In order for parents to do this, God’s requirements and deeds need to be constantly on their minds, out of their love for him. Similarly, love for God and loyalty are expressed by meditation on and determination to obey his law (Ps. 119:11, 112). The law is not merely a list of rules; it is also a repository of a worldview in which the Lord is the only God. To live consistently with this truth requires careful, reflective thought.
Emotions and attitude. The heart, as the seat of emotion, is associated with a number of feelings and sentiments, such as gladness (Exod. 4:14; Acts 2:26), hatred (Lev. 19:17), pride (Deut. 8:14), resentment (Deut. 15:10), dread (Deut. 28:67), sympathy (Judg. 5:9), love (Judg. 16:15), sadness (1Sam. 1:8; John 16:6), and jealousy and ambition (James 3:14). The heart is also the frame of reference for attitudes such as willingness, courage, and desire.
The present abode of God and the final dwelling place of the righteous. The ancient Jews distinguished three different heavens. The first heaven was the atmospheric heavens of the clouds and where the birds fly (Gen. 1:20). The second heaven was the celestial heavens of the sun, the moon, and the stars. The third heaven was the present home of God and the angels. Paul builds on this understanding of a third heaven in 2Cor. 12:24, where he describes himself as a man who “was caught up to the third heaven” or “paradise,” where he “heard inexpressible things.” This idea of multiple heavens also shows itself in how the Jews normally spoke of “heavens” in the plural (Gen. 1:1), while most other ancient cultures spoke of “heaven” in the singular.
Although God is present everywhere, God is also present in a special way in “heaven.” During Jesus’ earthly ministry, the Father is sometimes described as speaking in “a voice from heaven” (Matt. 3:17). Similarly, Jesus instructs us to address our prayers to “Our Father in heaven” (6:9). Even the specific request in the Lord’s Prayer that “your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven” (6:10) reminds us that heaven is a place already under God’s full jurisdiction, where his will is presently being done completely and perfectly. Jesus also warns of the dangers of despising “one of these little ones,” because “their angels in heaven always see the face of my Father in heaven” (18:10). Jesus “came down from heaven” (John 6:51) for his earthly ministry, and after his death and resurrection, he ascended back “into heaven,” from where he “will come back in the same way you have seen him go into heaven” (Acts 1:11).
Given this strong connection between heaven and God’s presence, there is a natural connection in Scripture between heaven and the ultimate hope of believers. Believers are promised a reward in heaven (“Rejoice and be glad, because great is your reward in heaven” [Matt. 5:12]), and even now believers can “store up for [themselves] treasures in heaven” (6:20). Even in this present life, “our citizenship is in heaven” (Phil. 3:20), and our hope at death is to “depart and be with Christ, which is better by far” (1:23). Since Christ is currently in heaven, deceased believers are already present with Christ in heaven awaiting his return, when “God will bring with Jesus those who have fallen asleep in him” (1Thess. 4:14).
Of several Hebrew words for “judgment,” two are important here.
The word shepet is used of God, who brings the judgments upon the Egyptians in the plagues (Exod. 6:6; 7:4; 12:12). Ezekiel prophesies God’s judgment on Israel and other nations (e.g., Ezek. 5:10; 16:41; 25:11). The word is also applied to human beings, as the Syrians execute judgment on Israel (2Chron. 24:24).
The most frequent noun is mishpat. Abraham is noted for mishpat, “judgment/justice” (Gen. 18:19). God by attribute is just (Gen. 18:25); he shows justice toward the orphan and the widow (Deut. 10:18) and brings judgment on behalf of the oppressed (Ps. 25:9). At the waters of Marah, God makes a judgment, an ordinance for the people (Exod. 15:25). Similarly, the mishpatim, “judgments/ordinances,” become law for life in Israel (Exod. 21:1). In making judicial judgments, the Israelites are to be impartial (Lev. 19:15), and they are to use good judgment and justice in trade (Lev. 19:35; Prov. 16:11). Israel will be judged for rejecting God’s judgments (Ezek. 5:78) and worshiping false gods (Jer. 1:16). Those accused of crime will come to judgment/trial (Num. 35:12). The children of Israel come to their judges for judgment (Judg. 4:5). God will bring each person to a time of judgment regarding how his or her life is spent (Eccles. 11:9).
One key word in the NT is krisis. It has a range of meaning similar to mishpat. In the NT, judgment is rendered for thoughts and words as well as deeds (Matt. 5:21–22; 12:36). Future, eschatological judgment is a key theme for Jesus (Matt. 10:15; 11:22, 24; 12:42), Paul (2Thess. 1:5), and other NT writers (Heb. 9:27; 10:27; 2Pet. 2:9; 3:7; 1John 4:17; Jude 15; Rev. 14:7). Jesus himself will be the judge (John 5:22). The only way to avoid condemnation is by having eternal life in the Messiah (John 5:24).
Another key word in the NT is krima. It may refer to condemnation (Matt. 7:2; Rom. 3:8) or to judgment, again including the eschatological judgment (Acts 24:25). Krima is the word most frequently used by Paul. He also often presents judgment as already realized (e.g., Rom. 2:2–3; 5:16). In the later epistles judgment may be realized as well (2Pet. 2:3; Jude 4). James points out that not many should presume to be teachers, because they will be judged more strictly (James 3:1).
In general, Torah (Law) may be subdivided into three categories: judicial, ceremonial, and moral, though each of these may influence or overlap with the others. The OT associates the “giving of the Torah” with Moses’ first divine encounter at Mount Sinai (Exod. 1923) following the Israelites’ deliverance from the land of Egypt, though some body of customary legislation existed before this time (Exod. 18). These instructions find expansion and elucidation in other pentateuchal texts, such as Leviticus and Deut. 12–24, indicating that God’s teachings were intended as the code of conduct and worship for Israel not only during its wilderness wanderings but also when it settled in the land of Canaan following the conquest.
More specifically, the word “law” often denotes the Ten Commandments (or “the Decalogue,” lit., the “ten words”) (Exod. 34:28; Deut. 4:13; 10:4) that were delivered to Moses (Exod. 20:1–17; Deut. 5:6–21). These commandments reflect a summary statement of the covenant and may be divided into two parts, consistent with the two tablets of stone on which they were first recorded: the first four address the individual’s relationship to God, and the last six focus on instructions concerning human relationships. Despite the apparent simplistic expression of the Decalogue, the complexity of these guidelines extends beyond individual acts and attitudes, encompassing any and all incentives, enticements, and pressures leading up to a thing forbidden. Not only should the individual refrain from doing the prohibited thing, but also he or she is obligated to practice its opposite good in order to be in compliance.
God begins his creation with light, which precedes the creation of sun, moon, and stars and throughout Scripture is an unqualified good (Gen. 1:35, 15–18; Exod. 10:23; 13:21). In the ancient world, people rarely traveled at night and usually went to bed soon after sunset. The only light in the home was a small oil lamp set on a stand, which burned expensive olive oil. Light is a biblical synonym for life (Job 3:20; John 8:12). Seeing the light means living (Ps. 49:19; see also Job 33:30). Conversely, darkness is often a symbol of adversity, disaster, and death (Job 30:26; Isa. 8:22; Jer. 23:12; Lam. 3:2).
John, who offers perhaps the most profound meditations on light, claims that God is light (1John 1:5). The predicate appropriates the intrinsic beauty of light, a quality that draws people’s hearts back to the author of beauty. For the apostle, light represents truth and signifies God’s will in opposition to the deception of the world (John 1:9; 12:46). Light stands for purity and signifies God’s holiness as opposed to the unrighteousness of the world (John 3:19–21). Light is where God is, and it radiates from the place of fellowship between God and his creation (John 1:7).
The English word “messiah” derives from the Hebrew verb mashakh, which means “to anoint.” The Greek counterpart of the Hebrew word for “messiah” (mashiakh) is christos, which in English is “Christ.”
In English translations of the Bible, the word “messiah” (“anointed one”) occurs rarely in the OT. In the OT, kings, prophets, and priests were “anointed” with oil as a means of consecrating or setting them apart for their respective offices. Prophets and priests anointed Israel’s kings (1Sam. 16:1 13; 2Sam. 2:4, 7).
The expectation for a “messiah,” or “anointed one,” arose from the promise given to David in the Davidic covenant (2Sam. 7). David was promised that from his seed God would raise up a king who would reign forever on his throne. Hopes for such an ideal king began with Solomon and developed further during the decline (cf. Isa. 9:1–7) and especially after the collapse of the Davidic kingdom.
The harsh reality of exile prompted Israel to hope that God would rule in such a manner. A number of psalms reflect the desire that an ideal son of David would come and rule, delivering Israel from its current plight of oppression. Hence, in Ps. 2 God declares that his son (v.7), who is the Lord’s anointed one (v.2), will receive “the nations [as] your inheritance, the ends of the earth your possession” (v.8). God promises that “you will rule them with an iron scepter; you will dash them to pieces like pottery” (v.9; see NIV footnote). Jesus demonstrates great reticence in using the title “Messiah.” In the Synoptic Gospels he almost never explicitly claims it. The two key Synoptic passages where Jesus accepts the title are themselves enigmatic. In Mark’s version of Peter’s confession (8:29), Jesus does not explicitly affirm Peter’s claim, “You are the Messiah,” but instead goes on to speak of the suffering of the Son of Man. Later, Jesus is asked by the high priest Caiaphas at his trial, “Are you the Christ, the Son of the Blessed One?” (Mark 14:60). In Mark 14:62, Jesus answers explicitly with “I am,” while in Matt. 26:64, he uses the more enigmatic “You have said so.” Jesus then goes on to describe himself as the exalted Son of Man who will sit at Yahweh’s right hand.
Jesus no doubt avoided the title because it risked communicating an inadequate understanding of the kingdom and his messianic role. Although the Messiah was never a purely political figure in Judaism, he was widely expected to destroy Israel’s enemies and secure its physical borders. Psalms of Solomon portrays the coming “son of David” as one who will “destroy the unrighteous rulers” and “purge Jerusalem from Gentiles who trample her to destruction” (Pss. Sol. 17.21–23). To distance himself from such thinking, Jesus never refers to himself as “son of David” and “king of Israel/the Jews” as other characters do in the Gospels (Matt. 12:23; 21:9, 15; Mark 10:47; 15:2; John 1:49; 12:13; 18:33). When Jesus was confronted by a group of Jews who wanted to make him into such a king, he resisted them (John 6:15).
In Mark 12:35–37, Jesus also redefines traditional understandings of the son of David in his short discussion on Ps. 110:1: he is something more than a mere human son of David. Combining Jesus’ implicit affirmation that he is the Messiah in Mark 8:30 with his teaching about the Son of Man in 8:31, we see that Jesus is a Messiah who will “suffer many things and be rejected by the elders, the chief priests, and the teachers of the law” (8:31) and through whom redemption will come (10:45). Jesus came not to defeat the Roman legions, but to bring victory over Satan, sin, and death.
(1)The tetrarch of Iturea and Traconitis, regions northeast of Palestine, at the time when John the Baptist’s public ministry began (Luke 3:1). (2)One of Jesus’ twelve apostles (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:14; John 1:43). Philip, like Andrew and Peter, was from Bethsaida (John 1:44). It was Philip who introduced Nathanael to Jesus (John 1:4548). John’s Gospel mentions Philip three times subsequent to chapter 1 (6:5–7; 12:20–22; 14:6–10), in the last instance recording Philip’s shortsighted request for Jesus to show the Father to the apostles. (3)One of seven men selected by the Jerusalem church to care for the distribution of food to its widows (Acts 6:1–6). This man, also known as Philip the evangelist (21:8), shared the message of Jesus Christ in a city of Samaria, performing great miracles (8:5–13). Philip later explained the good news of Jesus to an Ethiopian eunuch whom he encountered (8:26–38). After Philip baptized the eunuch, “the Spirit of the Lord suddenly took Philip away” (8:39). Philip then preached in several towns, finally arriving at Caesarea, where he settled (8:40). Years later, Paul stayed in Caesarea with Philip and his four prophesying daughters (21:8–9).
“Salvation” is the broadest term used to refer to God’s actions to solve the plight brought about by humankind’s sinful rebellion and its consequences. It is one of the central themes of the entire Bible, running from Genesis through Revelation.
In many places in the OT, salvation refers to being rescued from physical rather than spiritual trouble. Fearing the possibility of retribution from his brother Esau, Jacob prays, “Save me, I pray, from the hand of my brother Esau” (Gen. 32:11). The actions of Joseph in Egypt saved many from famine (45:57; 47:25; 50:20). Frequently in the psalms, individuals pray for salvation from enemies that threaten one’s safety or life (Pss. 17:14; 18:3; 70:1–3; 71:1–4; 91:1–3).
Related to this usage are places where the nation of Israel and/or its king were saved from enemies. The defining example of this is the exodus, whereby God delivered his people from their enslavement to the Egyptians, culminating in the destruction of Pharaoh and his army (Exod. 14:1–23). From that point forward in the history of Israel, God repeatedly saved Israel from its enemies, whether through a judge (e.g., Judg. 2:16; 3:9), a king (2Kings 14:27), or even a shepherd boy (1Sam. 17:1–58).
But these examples of national deliverance had a profound spiritual component as well. God did not save his people from physical danger as an end in itself; it was the necessary means for his plan to save them from their sins. The OT recognizes the need for salvation from sin (Pss. 39:8; 51:14; 120:2) but, as the NT makes evident, does not provide a final solution (Heb. 9:1–10:18). One of the clearest places that physical and spiritual salvation come together is Isa. 40–55, where Judah’s exile from the land and prophesied return are seen as the physical manifestation of the much more fundamental spiritual exile that resulted from sin. To address that far greater reality, God announces the day when the Suffering Servant would once and for all take away the sins of his people (Isa. 52:13–53:12).
As in the OT, the NT has places where salvation refers to being rescued from physical difficulty. Paul, for example, speaks of being saved from various physical dangers, including execution (2Cor. 1:8–10; Phil. 1:19; 2Tim. 4:17). In the midst of a fierce storm, Jesus’ disciples cry out, “Lord, save us! We’re going to drown!” (Matt. 8:25). But far more prominent are the places in the Gospels and Acts where physical healings are described with the verb sōzō, used to speak of salvation from sin. The healing of the woman with the hemorrhage (Mark 5:25–34), the blind man along the road (Luke 18:35–43), and even the man possessed by a demon (Luke 8:26–39), just to name a few, are described with the verb sōzō. The same verb, however, is also used to refer to Jesus forgiving someone’s sins (Luke 7:36–50) and to his mission to save the lost from their sins (Luke 19:10). Such overlap is a foretaste of the holistic salvation (physical and spiritual) that will be completed in the new heaven and earth (Rev. 21–22). The NT Epistles give extensive descriptions of how the work of Jesus Christ saves his people from their sins.
There are numerous relationships in the OT that could be characterized as following a servant-master model. These included service to the monarchy (2Sam. 9:2), within households (Gen. 16:8), in the temple (1Sam. 2:15), or to God himself (Judg. 2:8). We also see extensive slavery laws in passages such as Exod. 21:111; Lev. 25:39–55; Deut. 15:12–18. The slavery laws were concerned with the proper treatment of Hebrew slaves and included guidelines for their eventual release and freedom. For example, Hebrew slaves who had sold themselves to others were to serve for a period of six years. On the seventh year, known also as the Sabbath Year, they were to be released. Once released, they were not to be sent away empty-handed, but rather were to be supported from the owner’s “threshing floor” and “winepress.” Slaves also had certain rights that gave them special privileges and protection from their masters. Captured slaves, for example, were allowed rest on the Sabbath (Exod. 20:10) and during special holidays (Deut. 16:11, 14). They could also be freed if their master permanently hurt or crippled them (Exod. 21:26–27). Also, severe punishment was imposed on a person who beat a slave to death (Exod. 21:20–21).
Slavery was very common in the first century AD, and there were many different kinds of slaves. For example, slaves might live in an extended household (oikos) in which they were born, or they might choose to sell themselves into this situation (1Pet. 2:18–25). Although slavery was a significant part of society in the first century AD, we never see Jesus or the apostles encourage slavery. Instead, both Paul and Peter encouraged godly character and obedience for slaves within this system (Eph. 6:5–8; Col. 3:22–25; 1Tim. 6:1–2; Philemon; 1Pet. 2:18–21). Likewise, masters were encouraged to be kind and fair to their slaves (Eph. 6:9; Col. 4:1). Later in the NT, slave trading was condemned by the apostle Paul as contrary to “sound doctrine” and “the gospel concerning the glory of the blessed God” (1Tim. 1:10–11).
Jesus embodied the idea of a servant in word and deed. He fulfilled the role of the “Servant of the Lord,” the Suffering Servant predicted by the prophet Isaiah (Isa. 42:1–4; 50:4–9; 52:13–53:12). He also took on the role of a servant in the Gospels, identifying himself as the Son of Man who came to serve (Mark 10:45) and washing the disciples’ feet (John 13:4–5). Paul says that in the incarnation Jesus took on “the very nature of a servant” (Phil. 2:7).
The special relationship between Jesus and his followers is captured in the servant-master language of the NT Epistles, especially in Paul’s letters (Rom. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Titus 1:1). This language focuses not so much on the societal status of these servants as on the allegiance and honor owed to Christ Jesus.
In the OT, the phrase “son of man” usually refers to humanity in general or to a specific individual. In Ezekiel, for instance, God addresses the prophet himself as “son of man,” possibly indicating his human status compared with God or, alternatively, highlighting his unique status as God’s prophet in contrast with the rest of humanity.
One of the most crucial OT “son of man” texts is Dan. 7 because of its influence on the “Son of Man” in the Gospel tradition. The first half of the chapter records Daniel’s vision (7:114), while the second half contains its interpretation (7:15–27). In the vision Daniel sees “one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven” (7:13). This exalted figure contrasts with the first three beasts, which are “like a lion” (7:4), “like a bear” (7:5), and “like a leopard” (7:6). The fourth beast is so gruesome that it defies comparison with any species of the animal kingdom (7:7). Many agree that the beasts likely refer to ancient world empires; however, the referent of “one like a son of man” has given rise to much debate. The figure may refer to earthly Israel, since at this figure’s vindication he is endowed with authority and glory. This is precisely what “the holy people of the Most High” receive in verse27. In this way, the “one like a son of man” is a symbol for the persecuted, earthly saints. Alternatively, the exalted figure could be a heavenly being such as the archangel Gabriel (9:21) or Michael (10:13; 12:1). Here “one like a son of man” is the heavenly counterpart and leader of suffering Israel and fights a cosmic battle on its behalf.
In the NT the term “Son of Man” occurs mostly in the Gospels and, with the exception of John 12:34 (where the crowd quotes Jesus), is uttered exclusively by Jesus himself. Unlike in Daniel, the epithet occurs in the Gospels with the definite article, likely indicating that the Son of Man was a known figure. In first-century Judaism many Jews believed that the Son of Man would return at the end as savior and judge. The OT provides the most helpful background for understanding the Son of Man in the Gospels.
The Son of Man sayings in the Gospels fall within three categories: earthly, suffering-resurrection, and future-vindication sayings. Starting with the earthly sayings, in Mark 2:10, for example, the Son of Man has “authority on earth to forgive sins,” and in 2:28 he exercises dominion over the Sabbath. Although in Daniel the Son of Man does not receive such authority until his appearance in Yahweh’s presence at his vindication, the Son of Man in the Gospels exercises such authority during his earthly ministry. Jesus also predicts that the Son of Man will suffer, die, and be raised again. In Mark, these suffering-resurrection predictions occur three times (8:31; 9:31; 10:33–34). Echoing Dan. 7, this plight of Jesus recalls the suffering of the holy ones caused by the little horn (v.21). If the “one like a son of man” represents the holy ones in their vindication, then it is reasonable that he does so in their suffering as well; however, the text of Daniel is silent on this point. Finally, the clearest reference to Dan. 7 occurs in the future-vindication sayings. In Mark 13:26; 14:62 the Son of Man comes with/on the clouds, which points to his vindication over the Sanhedrin, the dominant adversaries of Jesus in Mark. Matthew appears to develop even more than Mark the judicial responsibilities of the Son of Man (Matt. 13:41–43; 25:31–33). Meanwhile, in Luke the church must stay alert and be prepared for the return of the Son of Man (12:39–40; 17:22–37; 21:34–36).
Finally, the Son of Man in Revelation is in the heavenly temple functioning as both judge and caretaker of the seven churches (Rev. 1:12–20) and reaps the saints while “seated on the cloud” (14:14–16).
The way the word “soul” is used in English does not align well with any single Hebrew or Greek word in the Bible. It is widely accepted that the biblical view (both OT and NT) of humanity does not recognize sharp boundaries between body and soul (bipartite anthropology) or between body, soul, and spirit (tripartite). The human being is, according to biblical teaching, a psychosomatic unity.
Wheat was a major crop in Palestine throughout biblical times and was the most important crop during the patriarchal times (Gen. 30:14). Wheat is a winter crop that was sown by hand in November or December; it was ready for harvest in May and was commemorated by the Festival of Weeks. Between the time of the late monarchy and the time of the NT, wheat was not only a food source but also a source of export income (Amos 8:5). Wheat can be eaten in a variety of ways and was often used, ground into fine flour, as an offering at the tabernacle and temple (Lev. 2:1). In the NT, wheat is used to symbolize the good produce of the kingdom of God (Matt. 13:2431; cf. 3:12).
Worship of God is a critical dimension of both Testaments. One might argue that it is the very goal for which Israel and the church were formed.
The living God is the sole object of worship. He delights in the satisfying joy that his children find in him. The nature of worship is not about servant entertainment or passive observation; it is an active acknowledgment of God’s worth in a variety of humble ways.
A genuine selfless focus on the person and work of God brings about a humble response that affects one’s posture, generates works of service, and stirs up a healthy attitude of fear and respect. Knowledge of God is the foundational element in worship. God is worshiped for who he is and what he does. He is the Eternal One (Ps. 90:1; 1Tim. 1:17), unique in every way (Isa. 44:8); he is God alone (Deut. 6:4). He is distinguished by his self-existence, the self-reliant quality of his life (Exod. 3:14; Deut. 32:30). The psalmist calls God’s people to shout joyfully to their good, loving, eternal, and faithful Creator (Ps. 100).
God is worshiped as the Creator of all life. This magnificent creative work of God, declared in the opening of Genesis, is a critical focus in worship (Ps. 95:6; Rom. 1:25; Rev. 4:11). Along with this is the companion declaration that God is the redeemer. The redemptive work of God is celebrated in the Song of Moses (Exod. 15:118) and in the Song of the Redeemed (Rev. 14:3).
Worship is also associated with the royal aspects of God’s character. It was the desire of the magi to find Jesus the king and worship him (Matt. 2:1–2). The final scenes of history will be characterized by humble submission to and worship of the King of kings (1Tim. 6:15; Rev. 17:14; 19:16; cf. Rev. 15:3–4). The psalms often draw the reader’s attention to God’s royal character as a basis for worship (Pss. 45:11; 98:6).
Finally, God is worshiped as the Lord of his covenant relationship with the nation of Israel. This covenant theme and metaphor summarize the varied aspects of God’s character and his relationship with Israel. The God who brought Israel into a covenant relationship is to be sincerely and exclusively worshiped (2Kings 17:35, 38; cf. Deut. 31:20). These confessional statements about the character of God are a glorious weight that moves believers to prostrate themselves, to have an attitude of awe and respect, and to obediently serve.
Direct Matches
A town located on the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee,near the Jordan River, about five miles east of Capernaum, althoughthe precise location is disputed. The two sites most commonlysuggested are el-Araj and et-Tell. The answer may be found in therelationship between the two sites. The ruins of et-Tell are twomiles north of el-Araj. In the first century they may have been onopposite sides of the Jordan River, el-Araj on the west and et-Tellon the east. Both were Bethsaida, but el-Araj was the “village”(Mark 8:23) and “Bethsaida in Galilee” (John 1:44;12:21), and et-Tell was the polis (“city”).
Thename “Bethsaida” is Aramaic, meaning “house offishing” or “house of the fisherman.” The Jewishhistorian Josephus records that Herod the Great’s son HerodPhilip built up the city in terms of the number of inhabitants andgrandeur and advanced it from a village to a city. He renamed it“Julias” in honor of Augustus Caesar’s daughter(Ant. 18.2.1). Philip was buried in the city following his death inAD 33 (Ant. 18.4.6).
Bethsaidais the third most mentioned town in the Gospels, and it was at theheart of Jesus’ ministry. It was the birthplace of Peter andAndrew and the home of Philip (John 1:44; 12:21). Jesus performedseveral miracles at or near the town. Near Bethsaida Jesus walked onwater (Mark 6:45–52) and fed the five thousand (6:30–44).In Bethsaida Jesus healed a blind man (8:22–26). Unfortunately,the miracles do not seem to have had much effect on the inhabitants,and in Matt. 11:21 // Luke 10:13 Jesus denounces the city along withChorazin for its lack of repentance.
Typesof Crosses
Across is an upright wooden beam or post on which persons were eithertied or nailed as a means of torture and execution. A cross couldhave several different shapes. The earliest was not a cross at allbut rather a simple stake or pole on which persons were impaled. Thissimple stake evolved over time into more elaborate shapes with theaddition of a crossbeam that was secured to the upright stake. TheLatin cross was shaped like a t and was the type most commonly usedby the Romans. Jesus was crucified probably on a Latin cross, whichallowed for a convenient place for a sign (called a titlos in John19:19) to be placed above his head (Matt. 27:37 pars.). Another formof cross, now referred to as a St. Anthony’s cross, wasshaped like a T, with the crossbeam affixed at the top of the uprightbeam. A cross shaped like an X, having a crisscross pattern, is alsoknown as a St. Andrew’s cross. Tradition holds that theapostle Peter was crucified upside down on this type of cross. Across shaped like a +, the Greek cross, has the crossbeam in thecenter.
Crucifixionin Ancient Times
Inancient times, crucifixion was a method of execution used by manypeoples, including the Assyrians, the Phoenicians, the Babylonians,the Persians, the Medes, and the Greeks. Historically, crucifixion’sbarbaric predecessor was impalement. Victims often were beheadedfirst, and then their lifeless bodies were forced onto a large stakeor spike (Gen. 40:19; 1 Sam. 31:9–10). Impalementoriginally was more about triumph and exposure than execution (Deut.21:22–23; Josh. 8:29; 10:26; 2 Sam. 4:12; 21:9–10).But the Assyrians impaled their enemies by sticking them, stillalive, onto pointed stakes, thus utilizing impalement as a method ofexecution. The book of Esther probably reflects the practice ofimpalement in the Persian period by describing how the king’sofficials were executed (2:23; 5:14; KJV: “hanged”). Inthese verses, the Hebrew word that some English versions translate as“gallows” (’ets) actually means “tree,”and a noose for hanging was not used in Persia during this period.Impalement became a common form of execution.
Impalementas a means of execution eventually gave way to crucifixion.Crucifixion was especially prized by the Phoenicians, whose normalmethods of execution—drowning, immersion in boiling oil,impalement, stoning, and burning—were seen as too quick andeasy. Wanting their victims to suffer longer, they used crucifixion,a more severe form of execution. The Greeks also crucified victims ona stake or a cross. Alexander the Great crucified two thousandinhabitants of Tyre along the shoreline when he captured the city in332 BC.
Thereis no evidence that ancient Israel fastened people to a stake or across as a method of execution. Instead, stoning was the preferredmethod of execution in Israel and was commanded by the law (Lev.20:2; Deut. 22:24). The law did, however, permit the public displayof an offender’s body “on a tree” or a “pole”after being executed (Deut. 21:22). The same expression is used inthe book of Acts to describe Jesus’ crucifixion (5:30; 10:39;13:29). In contrast to pagan nations that would leave a corpsehanging on a cross until the flesh either rotted away or was devouredby vultures, Israel was commanded to take the body down, not lettingit remain on the tree overnight (Deut. 21:23). This explains why theJews were so adamant that Jesus’ body be taken down before theSabbath commenced at sunset (John 19:31). Being hung on a tree wasespecially abhorrent to Israel because it reflected God’s curseupon the offender (Deut. 21:23). Jesus was accursed by God as he hungon the cross, bearing the sins of the world (Gal. 3:13).
Crucifixionin New Testament Times
Notlong before the Romans took over Palestine, the Jewish rulerAlexander Jannaeus crucified about eight hundred Pharisees whoopposed him in 86 BC. This gruesome event was out of character forthe Jewish nation and was frowned upon by the Jews of the day as wellas by the later Jewish historian Josephus. But it was the Romans whoperfected crucifixion as a means of torture and execution. The Romanscalled crucifixion “slaves’ punishment” because itwas intended for the lowest members of society. It became thepreferred method of execution for political crimes such as desertion,spying, rebellion, and insurrection. Roman crucifixion was common inNT times and extended well into the fourth century AD. The emperorConstantine converted to Christianity in AD 312 and abolishedcrucifixion altogether. The cross became a symbol of Christiansacrifice instead of a barbarous method of torture and execution.
RomanCrucifixion
Crucifixionwas a barbaric method of torture and execution whereby a victim waseither nailed or tied to a wooden cross and left to die a long,agonizing death. It often was reserved for the most offensivecriminals, such as thieves (Matt. 27:38), murderers, insurrectionists(Mark 15:7), and other political rebels. Disobedient slaves commonlywere crucified. Crucifixion was so demeaning that Roman citizens wereexempt and could be crucified only by direct decree of the emperor.Crucifixion also was used as a triumphant sign in times of war asvictors demonstrated their conquests by hoisting their enemies uponcrosses for all to see. It was viewed as a public symbol of strengthand intimidation. Adding insult to injury, executioners strippedtheir victims and crucified them alongside busy roads and in publicplaces where onlookers could gaze in horror.
Criminalsoften were flogged severely before crucifixion in apseudo-compassionate effort to speed up the death process experiencedon the cross (John 19:1). The victim was stripped, tied to a post,and then brutally beaten by several Roman torturers using whips withsharp pieces of bone or metal at the ends of the lashes. Suchfloggings were said to leave the victim’s bones and entrailsexposed. The torturers did not stop until they either exhaustedthemselves or were called off by their commanding officers.
Afterthe flogging, the offender was forced to carry the crossbeam, oftenweighing seventy-five to one hundred pounds, on his or her shouldersto the crucifixion site (John 19:17). The main upright beam, standingseven to nine feet tall, remained at the site of crucifixion and wasused repeatedly. The victim was then laid down with arms stretchedout across the beam and usually tied into position. Once the victim’sarms were secured by ropes, a soldier searched for the “hollowspot” in the wrist located just above the flexion area near thecarpal bones. The metacarpal bones of the palms were too weak tosupport the weight of the body on the cross, so the wrist was astronger alternative. However, the use of ropes to support the armsmade the choice of little consequence. Either location wasacceptable. A hammer was used to drive five-inch nails through bothwrists, affixing the victim to the crossbeam. It was customary tooffer the victim a narcotic co*cktail to help ease the pain ofcrucifixion. Jesus refused this drink (Matt. 27:34; Mark 15:23).
Afterthe victim’s arms were nailed to the crossbeam, it was hoistedup and secured to the upright post. This alone was very hard on thefatigued body of the victim, who already had lost a considerableamount of blood. This quick, upward motion caused orthostatichypotension—very low blood pressure caused by a rapid verticalshift in body position. The victim’s blood pressure would dropto half of normal, while the pulse rate doubled. Victims frequentlyfainted due to the rush of blood away from the head during thisupward motion. This motion probably is the imagery behind Jesus’“lifted up” sayings (John 3:14; 8:28; 12:32). Jesus wasquite literally lifted up onto the cross.
Nextcame the nailing of the feet. The Romans had several different waysof nailing the feet to the cross. Roman soldiers were notorious fortwisting and contorting victims into odd positions while nailing themto the cross. Sometimes a victim’s legs were stretcheddownward, feet crossed, and one nail driven through both. A supportblock typically was placed behind the victim to support the weight ofthe body on the cross. A heel bone of a crucified man named“Yehohanan” (John) was discovered in an ossuary north ofJerusalem in 1968. A single nail had been driven through the side ofthe heel. Either the body was twisted so that the nail was driventhrough both heels, the right above the left, or each heel was nailedto opposite sides of the upright beam causing the victim to straddlethe cross. A piece of wood was held against the heel before the nailwas driven in, to act as a washer, preventing the foot from tearingfree. The ossuary’s inscription describes Yehohanan as “theone hanged with knees apart.” Once nailed to the cross, thevictim often suffered for several hours, even days, exposed to thehot sun as well as the insults of those passing by on the busy road(cf. Matt. 27:39; Mark 15:29; Luke 23:35; John 19:20). Extreme thirstwas brought on by massive blood loss and exposure to the elements(John 19:28).
Becausedeath could take several hours, it sometimes was hastened by acrushing blow to the legs with a club. Victims were unable to pushtheir bodies upward to gasp for air or to keep their bloodcirculating. This final blow to the legs also caused intense pain andusually was enough to throw the body into shock, with death followingsoon afterward. Jesus was already dead when the soldiers approachedto break his legs (John 19:32–33). This fulfilled what waswritten in the Scriptures: “Not one of his bones will bebroken” (John 19:36; cf. Exod. 12:46; Num. 9:12; Ps. 34:20).Instead of breaking Jesus’ legs, a soldier thrust a spear intohis side, which brought forth a sudden flow of blood and water,indicating that he was truly dead (John 19:34). This too was tofulfill Scripture: “They will look on the one they havepierced” (John 19:37; cf. Zech. 12:10). Bodies often were lefton the crosses to be eaten by scavenging birds such as vultures. TheJews demanded that the bodies of Jesus and the two thieves crucifiedwith him be taken down before the Sabbath that began that evening(John 19:31).
PhysicalDeath by Crucifixion
Deathby crucifixion resulted from a combination of factors. The mostobvious was massive blood loss. With the nails being driven throughthe extensive artery systems of the wrists and feet, the victim losta lot of blood. The severe flogging before being crucified alsoplayed a role and took its toll on the body. Blood loss also led to adepletion of oxygen supply to the vital tissues. Major organs faileddue to lack of oxygenation. Another factor leading to death wassuffocation or asphyxiation. The weight of the body hanging on thecross was too great for the tendons and muscles in the arms, so thevictims were unable to hold themselves up in order to take in deepbreaths. The victim’s upper body continued to sink lower untilthe lungs became too compressed and unable to take in large volumesof air. Victims could force themselves upward to gasp air by usingtheir legs, but this was extremely painful. Preventing the victimfrom pushing upward in order to breathe was another reason forbreaking the legs. The victim slowly suffocated for hours.
Theultimate cause of death was an eventual heart rupture due to massiveblood loss and lack of oxygenation. As the pulse raced and bloodpressure increased, the heart eventually burst due to the stress.This helps explain the reference to the “sudden flow of bloodand water” in John 19:34. In the case of heart rupture, theright side of the heart still has some blood left in it while the sacthat surrounds the heart, the pericardium, fills with water. Thesoldier’s spear pierced this sac and the heart, causing bothblood and water to flow out.
TheMeaning of Jesus’ Crucifixion
TheOT teaches that it is blood that makes atonement for sin (Lev.17:11). Just as sacrificial lambs shed their blood on the altar forthe sins of Israel, Jesus shed his blood on the cross for the sins ofthe world (John 1:29). The crucifixion of Jesus was the greatestatoning event in history. His blood, which provided the means for anew covenant, was poured out for many on the cross (Matt. 26:28). Thecross, as gruesome as it was, was the means through which Christ died“for our sins” (Gal. 1:4). Jesus freely scorned the shameof the cross so that we might be reconciled to God by his shed blood(Col. 1:20; Heb. 12:2).
Jesusalso bore the curse of God in our place when he died on the cross.The one who hangs on a tree is divinely cursed (Deut. 21:23). God’scurse is a curse upon sin, death, and fallenness. Jesus took God’scurse upon himself in order to redeem us from that curse (Gal. 3:13).
Jesusdemonstrated the humble nature of his mission and ministry by hisobedience to death, even death on the cross (Phil. 2:8). For Jesusthe cross was not simply his martyrdom, as if he simply died for aworthy cause; it was the pinnacle example of obedience and love inthe Bible. Jesus called his followers to take up a cross and followhis example of selfless sacrifice (Matt. 16:24). Jesus’ crossis a symbol of his love, obedience, and selflessness.
Mostof all, the cross reveals the unconditional love of God, who offeredhis Son as the atoning sacrifice for sin (John 3:16; 1 John4:10). The brutal cross reveals the beautiful love of Jesus, whowillingly laid down his life (1 John 3:16).
At the beginning of creation, the darkness “over thesurface of the deep” is not a primordial principle of chaos tobe combated by God (as sometimes suggested), but simply somethingthat prepares for his creation of light in Gen. 1:3. The “thickand dreadful darkness” that came over sleeping Abram (Gen.15:12) was an indicator of the reception of a mysterious divinerevelation involving a manifestation of God in the form of a smokingfire pot and a blazing torch (15:17). Likewise, the thick cloud anddarkness that shrouded Mount Sinai (Deut. 4:11; 5:23; Ps. 18:7–10)was a sign of God’s presence and also hid him from the sight ofthe Israelites.
Aplague of darkness was inflicted on Egypt as a prelude to the exodusdeliverance (Exod. 10) and made darkness a sign and symbol of God’sjudgment. In prophetic teaching, the coming “day of the Lord”in judgment upon Israel and the nations is “a day of darknessand gloom” (Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18–20; Zeph.1:14–15).The wicked will be thrust into darkness (Prov. 4:19; Isa. 8:22).Jesus used such imagery when speaking of punishment in hell (e.g.,Matt. 22:13; 25:30). The moral life of a believer involves turningaway from deeds of darkness (Eph. 5:8–11; 1Thess. 5:4–8).
Darknessis associated with Sheol and death (e.g., Job 10:21; 17:13) and soalso becomes a metaphor of a situation of distress, especiallylife-threatening danger (Ps. 107:10, 14). In contrast, the dispellingof darkness becomes a metaphor of God’s saving help in Isa.9:2: “The people walking in darkness have seen a great light”(cf. Isa. 10:17). That salvation will include the provision of afuture Davidic ruler (Isa. 9:6–7), so that the coming of Jesusis the dawning of light (John 1:5; 12:35).
Thisrich OT background gives a context to the three-hour period ofdarkness as Jesus hung on the cross (Matt. 27:45). This began at thesixth hour (i.e., noon) and signaled that the judgment day was takingplace as Jesus suffered in the place of sinners (cf. Amos 8:9).
Eternal life usually is mentioned in reference to human life, where it means unending life in the body, free from death. The expression, though most common in the NT, is drawn from the OT. The book of Daniel says that many who “sleep in the dust of the earth will awake: some to everlasting life, others to shame and everlasting contempt” (12:2). This yearning for eternal life is also expressed in Genesis, where those who eat of the “tree of life” will “live forever” (3:22). In Deuteronomy, God likewise declares, “I live forever” (32:40). Among the DSS, 4Q418 (frag. 69) and 1QS (4:7), both of which predate the NT, also refer to everlasting life.
The NT expression “eternal life” may seem to have a different meaning than the OT expression “everlasting life.” Any such appearance arises only in translation to English, for the underlying Greek words in the NT have the same meaning as the underlying Hebrew words in the OT. The words are already treated synonymously by the LXX, an ancient translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek (predating the NT).
The English word “eternal” may refer to eternity past and future, but in biblical usage that word does not generally refer to eternity past. This is evident where the NT mentions “eternal fire” (Matt. 18:8) and “eternal punishment” (Matt. 25:46). It is also indicated where eternal life is seen as a future reward for the righteous (Dan. 12:2; Luke 18:30; Rom. 2:7; Gal. 6:8; Titus 1:2; 1John 2:25).
That life in the body is included in the NT concept of eternal life is evident from several considerations. Jesus says of everyone who believes in him, “I will raise them up at the last day” (John 6:40). The bodily nature of everlasting life is indicated by Jesus’ own resurrection, for his tomb was left empty. Jesus says after his own resurrection that a spirit “does not have flesh and bones, as you see I have” (Luke 24:39). The apostle Paul even writes that without the resurrection the Christian faith is invalidated (1Cor. 15:12–19). When Paul says that “flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God,” he does not mean that resurrection is of the human spirit, but rather that perishable flesh and blood must first be made immortal (1Cor. 15:50–54; 2Cor. 5:4).
The prospect of eternal life is often contrasted with death and punishment, just as the Bible more generally contrasts the prospect of life with death and lawless behavior. In Gen. 3, the sin of Adam and Eve shows that people turn from God out of self-interest, so everlasting life is not given to them. Much later, the people of Israel are warned that they will suffer death if they break faith with the true God to follow other gods (Lev. 26; Deut. 28; 30:15–20). Later still, the book of Daniel warns plainly that resurrection is to everlasting life or to everlasting contempt (12:1–3). The NT likewise, drawing at times from the Hebrew prophets (e.g., Isa. 66:22–24), contrasts the prospect of eternal life with the prospect of punishment for doing evil (Matt. 25:31–46; John 5:28–29; Rom.6:23; Gal.6:8; Rev.20:10–15; 22:1–6).
Just as eternal life is contrasted with death, eternal life is sometimes referred to more fundamentally and simply as “life” (e.g., Matt. 19:17; Acts 11:18; 1John 3:14). All life comes from God, through his divine word (Gen. 1; Deut. 30:20; John 1:1–4). The NT says that God gave his Son the power to give eternal life, since the Son does only what God the Father commands (John 5:19–30; 6:57–58).
The NT promises eternal life to all who believe (trust) in God’s Son (John 3:16; 3:36; 6:40; 11:25–26; 20:31; 1John 5:13). To believe in God’s Son is to believe that God sent Jesus (John 17:8), to listen to Jesus’ message from God and so believe in God (5:24; 12:44), and to believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Messiah (20:31).
The belief in God and Jesus that secures eternal life is not mere mental assent, but rather is expressed in a life that turns from evil. Those who will receive eternal life are characterized by love rather than by hatred and murder (John 5:29; 1John 3:14–15). Only the righteous will enter into eternal life, and they are marked by their care for Jesus’ brothers and sisters: feeding the hungry and clothing the poor (Matt. 25:31–46). They do not live for themselves, nor do they give free rein to all human desires, but instead they are led by, and walk in accordance with, the Spirit of God (John 12:25; Gal. 5:16–21; 6:8).
A feeling of animosity, a disposition toward hostility,rejection, or negative favoritism.
Hateis as old as the conflict between Cain and Abel or as the rebellionof Satan. Many stories involve hatred and animosity between people(e.g., Gen. 37:4; 2Sam. 13:22). Beside humans hating eachother, people hate God and that which is morally upright (Exod. 20:5;Deut. 5:9; 7:10; 32:41; Pss. 68:1; 81:15; 120:6). It is correct,however, to hate sin (Pss. 97:10; 101:3; Prov. 8:13), as God does(Ps. 5:6; Prov. 6:16–19; Isa. 61:8; Rev. 2:6), though he takesno pleasure in the death of the wicked (Ezek. 18:23; 33:11). The twogreat commandments oppose the tendency to hate by calling us to loveGod wholly and love our neighbor as ourselves (Lev. 19:18; Deut. 6:5;10:12; Matt. 22:37; Mark 12:33; Luke 10:27). The reverse is alsocommanded: we should not hate our neighbor (Lev. 19:17) nor even hateour enemy, but rather do good and pray for our enemy (Exod. 23:4–5;Prov. 25:21; Matt. 5:44; Luke 6:27; cf. Deut. 10:19). Hateful actionsare not necessarily motivated by hateful feelings, as a father whodoes not give needed punishment to his son is said to treat him withhatred (Prov. 13:24).
Withregard to a hate crime, the main issue was intent—that is,whether an accident had occurred or whether a murder had beencommitted deliberately, “with malice aforethought” (Num.35:20). Hate was a criterion of intent and had to be established bymultiple witnesses for the two parties involved. Having hate did notgarner greater punishment or make it a worse crime; hatred signifiedthat it was a crime because it was intentional (Deut. 4:42; 19:4, 6,11; Josh. 20:5).
Withregard to marriage, in a polygamous marriage there was a danger ofpreferential treatment: a loved wife and a hated wife. The lawforbids reducing the care of one wife in favor of another (Exod.21:10) and protects the rights of the firstborn son even if he isborn to the hated wife (Deut. 21:15–17). Hatred may beexpressed by either party withholding conjugal relations. Thisprobably lies behind the description in Gen. 29:31 of Jacob hatingLeah (some translations say “unloved”).
Rejection,favoritism, or preference may be called “hate,” as in thecase of a nonpreferred wife in a polygamous marriage, in not choosingEsau to continue the covenant line (Mal. 1:2–3; Rom. 9:13), orin not having a greater love for Christ than anything else (Matt.6:24; Luke 14:26; John 12:25).
The precise and consistent division of time into hours,minutes, and seconds is a feature of modern life first made possibleby the widespread use of mechanical clocks in the late Middle Ages.Biblical texts reflect an earlier situation in which timekeeping wasprimarily a matter of celestial observation. NT references to “hours”fall into two broad categories: first, timekeeping by means ofnumbered hours; and second, the use of the word “hour” inthe sense of “moment,” a short, indefinite period of time(e.g., Matt. 8:13; John 16:2), as the hour was the basic unit ofmeasurable time (see Rev. 9:15).
Jesusobserved that the day was divided into twelve hours (John 11:9).Jesus was crucified at the third hour (9a.m.); it was dark fromthe sixth hour (noon) until the ninth hour (3p.m.), at whichpoint Jesus died (Matt. 27:45–46; Mark 15:25, 33; Luke 23:44;John 19:14). In one parable, a landowner hired workers at the third,sixth, ninth, and eleventh hours (Matt. 20:3–12). The book ofActs also reports events occurring at the third, sixth, and ninthhours (Acts 2:15; 3:1; 10:3, 9). Such passages suggest that actualreckoning was often less precise even than the twelve-hour schemepermitted, and that the day was more roughly divided into four partsof three hours each. The Gospel of John provides the most precisetime indications, mentioning the tenth hour (4p.m. [John 1:39])and the seventh hour (1p.m. [John 4:52]). One text names an“hour of dinner” (Luke 14:17; see also 22:14), andanother indicates that the ninth hour (3p.m.) was an “hourof prayer” (Acts 3:1; see also 10:30).
Thenight was divided into three or four “watches,” of whichthe NT mentions the second, third (Luke 12:38), and fourth (Matt.14:25; Mark 6:48). The OT mentions nocturnal watches (Pss. 63:6;90:4; 119:148; Lam. 2:19), including in military contexts (Exod.14:24; Judg. 7:19; 1Sam. 11:11), from which the term with thesense of standing guard is derived. The OT watches are not numbered,but are referred to as “middle” or “last.”The system of watches did not preclude the counting of hours duringthe night, as in Acts 23:23, which refers to the third hour of thenight (9p.m.).
Inaddition to the numbered hours of the day, the hour is also used tomeasure the passage of time, as in Acts 19:34, where a crowd riotsfor two hours (see also Matt. 26:40; Luke 22:59; Acts 5:7; Rev.17:12). One text refers to a half-hour period (Rev. 8:1).
Numeroustexts refer to hours of future trial (Matt. 10:19; Rev. 3:10),including an eschatological or “last hour” (e.g., Mark13:32; 1John 2:18). The suffering and death of Jesus is alsoreferred to as his “hour” (e.g., Mark 14:35; 14:41; John12:23, 27).
In the OT, many Hebrew words are translated as “prince,”all of which can also be rendered as, for example, “chieftain,”“captain,” “leader,” “ruler.”These words generally carry connotations of dominion, leadership, andnobility and do not necessarily indicate the direct male descendantsof a sitting king or queen. Thus, Zeph. 1:8 distinguishes betweenprinces and king’s sons. In the NT, the Greek word archōncorresponds to “prince” but is also translated as“ruler.” The same word and concept used with humanauthorities extend to the supernaturalrealm. Thus, Michael, the angelic protector of Israel in Daniel’svision, is a “prince” (Dan. 12:1). In the Gospels, Satanis called the “prince of this world” (John 12:31; 14:30;16:11) and also the “prince of demons” (Matt. 9:34;12:24; see also Eph. 2:2). Isaiah calls the messiah “Prince ofPeace” (Isa. 9:6), and Jesus is called a “Prince andSavior” (Acts 5:31). God is called the “Prince ofprinces” in Dan. 8:25.
OldTestament and Jewish Literature
Inthe OT, the phrase “son of man” usually refers tohumanity in general or to a specific individual. The general use of“son of man” occurs in poetic texts in which the phrasefunctions as a synonym for “man” or “human being”(Num. 23:19; Isa. 51:12; Pss. 144:3; 146:3). In Ps. 8:4 (ESV) thepsalmist asks, “What is man that you are mindful of him, andthe son of man that you care for him?” Echoing the creation ofman in Gen. 1, “man” and “son of man” in thispsalm have a royal status: being “crowned with glory and honor”and receiving dominion over all of God’s creation (Ps. 8:5–6).Later, in Ps. 80:17, “son of man” refers to the nation ofIsrael. The psalmist supplicates that God would make strong forhimself the “son of man” over Israel’s enemies(80:12–16). In Ezekiel, God addresses the prophet himself as“son of man,” possibly indicating his human statuscompared with God or, alternatively, highlighting his unique statusas God’s prophet in contrast with the rest of humanity.
Oneof the most crucial OT “son of man” texts is Dan. 7because of its influence on the “Son of Man” in theGospel tradition. Scholars debate the date of the composition of thischapter. While some argue for the sixth century BC, others prefer asecond-century BC date during the oppressive reign of AntiochusIVEpiphanes. The first half of the chapter records Daniel’svision (7:1–14), while the second half contains itsinterpretation (7:15–27). In the vision Daniel sees “onelike a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven” (7:13).This exalted figure contrasts with the first three beasts, which are“like a lion” (7:4), “like a bear” (7:5), and“like a leopard” (7:6). The fourth beast is so gruesomethat it defies comparison with any species of the animal kingdom(7:7). Many agree that the beasts likely refer to ancient worldempires; however, the referent of “one like a son of man”has given rise to much debate. The figure may refer to earthlyIsrael, since at this figure’s vindication he is endowed withauthority and glory. This is precisely what “the holy people ofthe Most High” receive in v.27. In this way, the “onelike a son of man” is a symbol for the persecuted, earthlysaints. Alternatively, the exalted figure could be a heavenly beingsuch as the archangel Gabriel (Dan. 9:21) or Michael (Dan. 10:13;12:1). Here “one like a son of man” is the heavenlycounterpart and leader of suffering Israel and fights a cosmic battleon its behalf.
Insubsequent Jewish literature, the “one like a son of man”from Dan. 7 becomes quite active, appearing to be a development ofthe static image who is “given authority, glory and sovereignpower” (Dan. 7:14). In 1En. 37–71, a text thatdates from the last half of the first century BC to the first half ofthe first century AD, the “Son of Man” is seated upon histhrone and will judge “the kings and the mighty” who havepersecuted faithful Israel (46:4–8; 62:5). At that point, thefaithful ones (i.e., the holy, righteous, and chosen) will be formedinto a new congregation. In another Jewish text that dates from theend of the first century AD, there is a strong echo of the Danielicson of man. In 4Ezra 13, “something like the figure of aman came up out of the heart of the sea” (v.3a). Unlikein 1Enoch, this figure is a warrior who destroys with firethose who attempt to wage war on him. These texts indicate that atleast two traditions developed and reinterpreted the “one likea son of man” from Dan. 7. He becomes an individual whoexecutes judgment in one tradition, and one who executes destructionin another.
NewTestament
Inthe NT the term “Son of Man” occurs mostly in the Gospelsand, with the exception of John 12:34 (where the crowd quotes Jesus),is uttered exclusively by Jesus himself. The phrase, or a variationof it, also occurs in Acts 7:56; Heb. 2:6; Rev. 1:13; 14:14. Unlikein Daniel or 1Enoch, the epithet occurs in the Gospels with thedefinite article, likely indicating that the Son of Man was a knownfigure. Because of this and because the Son of Man in 1Enochand 4Ezra have similar functions, many scholars in themid-twentieth century speculated that in first-century Judaism manyJews believed that the Son of Man would return at the end as saviorand judge. Others suggested that the significance of the phrase isfound in its Aramaic background, bar ’enash’a, which inother texts means “I,” “man,” “a man,”or “someone.” Despite these alternatives, the OT providesthe most helpful background for understanding the Son of Man in theGospels.
TheSon of Man sayings in the Gospels fall within three categories:earthly, suffering-resurrection, and future-vindication sayings.Starting with the earthly sayings, in Mark 2:10, for example, the Sonof Man has “authority on earth to forgive sins,” and in2:28 he exercises dominion over the Sabbath. Although in Daniel theSon of Man does not receive such authority until his appearance inYahweh’s presence at his vindication, the Son of Man in theGospels exercises such authority during his earthly ministry. Jesusalso predicts that the Son of Man will suffer, die, and be raisedagain. In Mark, these suffering-resurrection predictions occur threetimes (8:31; 9:31; 10:33–34). Echoing Dan. 7, this plight ofJesus recalls the suffering of the holy ones caused by the littlehorn (v.21). If the “one like a son of man”represents the holy ones in their vindication, then it is reasonablethat he does so in their suffering as well; however, the text ofDaniel is silent on this point. Finally, the clearest reference toDan. 7 occurs in the future-vindication sayings. In Mark 13:26; 14:62the Son of Man comes with/on the clouds, which points to hisvindication over the Sanhedrin, the dominant adversaries of Jesus inMark. Matthew appears to develop even more than Mark the judicialresponsibilities of the Son of Man (Matt. 13:41–43; 25:31–33).Meanwhile, in Luke the church must stay alert and be prepared for thereturn of the Son of Man (Luke 12:39–40; 17:22–37;21:34–36).
InActs, the vision that Stephen witnesses confirms that the Son of Manhas indeed been exalted to the right hand of God (Acts 7:56). In theGospel of John, the epithet is used as the object of the verbs “tolift up” and “to glorify,” so that the death ofJesus is a form of exaltation (John 8:28; 12:23; 13:31), whichreflects his current exalted status in early Christian thinking.Finally, the Son of Man in Revelation is in the heavenly templefunctioning as both judge and caretaker of the seven churches (Rev.1:12–20) and reaps the saints while “seated on the cloud”(14:14–16).
Unlike a spring, a well allows access to subterranean waterthrough a shaft that has been dug into the ground. Wells typicallywere deep and lined with stone or baked brick for stability, oftencapped with heavy stone to prevent exploitation. In an aridenvironment, wells were invaluable to the community. Here, livestockwere watered and conversations were held (Gen. 24:10–27;29:1–14; John 4:6–8). Figuratively, the well is used of alover (Song 4:15), an adulteress (Prov. 23:27), and a city (Jer.6:7). Wells commonly were named (Gen. 21:25–31 [Beersheba,“well of an oath”]) and often fought over (Gen. 21:25–30;26:18).
Threekinds of “well encounters” can be seen in Scripture:(1)human being with deity (Gen. 16:7–14), (2)clanwith clan (26:20), and (3)man with woman (29:1–14). Thelatter became highly developed as a betrothal-type scene thatincluded standard elements: stranger’s arrival (=otherness),meeting (=bond), paternal announcement (=hospitality),and domestic invitation (=acceptance) (see Rebekah [Gen. 24];Jacob and Rachel [Gen. 29:1–14]; Moses and Zipporah [Exod.2:15–22]).
Jesus’encounter with the Samaritan woman (John 4:1–42) draws onmultiple aspects of a well encounter: divine (Jesus) with human (thewoman), Jew and Samaritan, a traveler, foreign (i.e., hostile) land,refreshment, announcement, invitation, and so on. However, nowJacob’s well (4:6) hosts Jesus’ presentation of himselfas the groom whom she has been seeking (4:26). The patriarch’swell becomes a symbol of salvation, just as water becomes a metaphorfor transformation (4:14–15). What could have been another“well of nationality” conflict (John 4:9, 11–12[cf. Gen. 26:20: “Esek= argument”]) was elevated toa “living water” conversion (John 4:10, 13–15 [cf.Gen. 16:14: “Beer Lahai Roi= well of the Living One whosees me”]). Her plea “Come, see a man” (John 4:29)echoes an earlier “outcast,” Hagar, who exclaimed, “Ihave now seen the One who sees me” (Gen. 16:13).
In classical Greek, “world” (kosmos)communicated the idea that the external universe is a well-orderedsystem. In early Greek usage, the term was used with reference tospecific types of social orderings, such as the seating order ofrowers (Homer, Od. 13.77), the order of soldiers (Homer, Il. 12.225),and well-ordered political states such as Sparta (Herodotus, Hist.1.65).
CreatedWorld
Inthe OT, the notion of the created “world” departed fromthe Greek understanding specifically in that creation is never seenas an independent entity controlled by an impersonal, all-embracingorder. Rather, the universe, usually described with the phrase “theheavens and the earth” (Gen. 1:1; 2:1, 4; Ps. 113:6; Jer.10:11) or at times the “all” or “all things”(Ps. 103:19; Jer. 10:16), is always understood in its relationship toits creator: “He who created the heavens, he is God; he whofashioned and made the earth, he founded it; he did not create it tobe empty, but formed it to be inhabited—he says: ‘I amthe Lord, and there is no other’ ” (Isa. 45:18).Here, the “world” (“earth”) refers to thematerial elements that make up the planet (see also Jer. 32:17; Zech.12:1) and the sum total of the entire universe (cf. Acts 17:24). Evenin the account of creation in Gen. 1:1–2:4, where many of theelements of the physical world are mentioned (waters, firmament,stars, etc.), the primary intent of the account is to convey that Godis Lord over everything because he is the Creator. Often thesecreated elements that make up the world are praised not for their owninherent beauty, but as a testimony to the majesty, supremacy, andomnipotence of the Creator (Pss. 8; 19:1–6; 33:6–9). InPs. 148:3–6 the elements within the natural order (kosmos) areinstructed to praise God: “Praise him, sun and moon; praisehim, all you shining stars. Praise him, you highest heavens and youwaters above the skies. Let them praise the name of the Lord, for athis command they were created, and he established them for ever andever—he issued a decree that will never pass away.”
Thoughnot providing a comprehensive description, the OT does at times referto how the world is constructed as a whole. The “vault”(Gen. 1:6–20 [RSV: “firmament”]) of heavenseparates the waters above from the waters below (which arerestrained by God’s sovereign care [Gen. 1:7; 7:11; 49:25]),and this area or chamber rests on “pillars” (Job 26:11).At times the earth is described as a disc with the sanctuary as itscenter point (Judg. 9:37; Ezek. 38:12), which rests on pillars (Job9:6). There is an underworld, from which there is no return (Job10:21); however, the OT does not engage in the kind of speculationregarding the underworld as is evident in the Greco-Roman tradition.
Earthand Its Inhabitants
Theterm “world” conveys other nuances in the Bible. It oftenrefers to the inhabitants of the earth or the place of human life:“He rules the world in righteousness and judges the peopleswith equity” (Ps. 9:8 [cf. Pss. 96:13; 98:9]); or, “Comenear, you nations, and listen; pay attention, you peoples! Let theearth hear, and all that is in it, the world, and all that comes outof it!” (Isa. 34:1). Also, in the Gospels “world”is used in this way: “What good is it for someone to gain thewhole world, yet forfeit their soul?” (Mark 8:36). Matthew 4:8refers to all the kingdoms of the world. Also the expressions “cominginto the world” (John 1:9; 3:19), “in the world”(John 1:10; 2Cor. 1:12), and “leave this world”(1Cor. 5:10) can be understood as referring to the sphere ofhuman life.
UngodlyCulture and Worldview
“World”can also refer to something more than the material world or humanityin general; it can refer to the entire cultural value system or worldorder that is hostile toward God. The “world” is a commonbiblical way of referring to the ungodly worldview and lifestyle thatcharacterize human life in its rebellion against the Creator. Thecourse of the world is profoundly affected by fallen humans, throughwhom death came into the world and rules over it (Rom. 5:12).Therefore, Paul can claim that “the whole world” hasbecome guilty before God (Rom. 3:19), and even the created world isaffected by such rebellion (8:20–22). Paul especially links“this world” with “this age” (1Cor.3:19; 5:10; Eph. 2:2 NET), which God has judged (Rom. 3:6). Johndeclares that Satan is the “prince of this world” (John12:31; 14:30; 16:11). Paul refers to Satan as the “god of thisworld” (2Cor. 4:4 ESV, NRSV, NASB), who is able to blindindividuals to the truth and who animates human rebellion (Eph. 2:2).In this sense, God and the world are strictly separate: “Don’tyou know that friendship with the world means enmity against God?Therefore, anyone who chooses to be a friend of the world becomes anenemy of God” (James 4:4). Because of this call to an exclusiverelationship with God, believers are mandated to resist and evenconfront the world. Followers of Christ must not be taken captive byphilosophy or the “elemental spiritual forces of this world”(Col. 2:8, 20), since, as Paul says, “the worldhas beencrucified to me, and I to the world” (Gal. 6:14).
Butit is the world that designates the location and object of God’ssaving activity. Indeed, God sent his Son into this world in order toreconcile it to himself (2Cor. 5:19). Jesus, the sacrificialLamb of God, “takes away the sins of the world” (John1:29). Out of love for this world, God sent his Son (John 3:1), notto judge it but to save it: “God did not send his Son into theworld to condemn the world, but to save the world through him”(John 3:17).
Althoughbelievers live in the world (1Cor. 5:10; Phil. 2:15) and musthave dealings with the world, ultimately they are not of the world(John 17:14). Remaining in Christ, believers are able to demonstratein the world the belief and practice of the new commandment to love(John 13:34; 15:9). Therefore, Christians must maintain a criticaldistance from the world’s system: “Do not love the worldor anythingin the world. If anyone loves the world, love forthe Father is not in them. For everything inthe world—thelust of the flesh, the lust of the eyes, and the pride of life—comesnot from the Father but from the world” (1John 2:15–16[cf. James 1:27; 4:4]). Believers are to avoid the seductive power ofthe world and not abandon themselves to it; they are to follow theirLord in proclaiming God’s project of reconciling the world tohimself through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (2Cor.5:18).
Secondary Matches
The following suggestions occured because
John 12:20-36
is mentioned in the definition.
Bible Texts and VersionsThe NT and the OT have considerably different but partiallyoverlapping textual histories. For clarity, it is best to begin witha survey of the NT manuscripts and versions.
Greektexts.Although no autographs of the NT books survive, there exist more thanfive thousand Greek texts covering anywhere from a portion of a fewverses up to the complete NT. Traditionally, these texts have beenclassified into five groups: papyri, uncials, minuscules,lectionaries, and quotations in patristic texts. The most importantmanuscripts are listed below.
Theearliest texts of the NT are those written on papyrus. Ninety-eightof these manuscripts have been identified, and they are representedby a “P” with a numerical superscript. The earliest ofthese papyri is P52, which contains parts of four verses in John 18and dates to the early second century. For substantial portions ofthe NT text, the most important papyri are found in the ChesterBeatty and Bodmer collections. P45, P46, and P47, all from theChester Beatty collection, are from the third century and containlarge sections of the four Gospels, eight of the Pauline Epistles,Hebrews, and Revelation. Within the Bodmer collection in Geneva arefour very important codices. P66 dates to around AD 200 and preservesmost of the Gospel of John. P72 dates to the third century andcontains the earliest copies of 1–2 Peter and Jude, which arepreserved in their entirety, as well as Greek translations of Pss.33–34. P74 dates to the seventh century and contains portionsof Acts, James, 1–2 Peter, 1–3 John, and Jude. Finally,P75, which dates to the early third century, contains most of Lukeand John 1–15. It is the oldest extant copy of Luke. Among theremaining papyri, forty-three have been dated to the early fourthcentury or before.
Thesecond category of manuscripts is the uncials, which usually werewritten on parchment and span the fourth through the tenth centuries.About 270 uncials are known, and they range from a few verses up tocomplete copies of the NT or even the entire Bible. Uncialsoriginally were denoted by capital letters, but when the number ofmanuscripts grew beyond these limits, a new system was employedwhereby each manuscript was given a number always beginning withzero. However, the most important uncials are still usually known bytheir letter. Among the most important uncials are the following fivemanuscripts. Codex Sinaiticus (designated by the Hebrew letter à)dates to the fourth century and is the only uncial that contains theentire NT. It also has almost all of the OT as well as the earlyChristian writings the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd ofHermas. Dating from the fifth century, Codex Alexandrinus (designatedas A) contains the OT, most of the NT—lacking only portions ofMatthew, John, and 2 Corinthians—and 1–2 Clement.Along with Sinaiticus, the most important uncial is Codex Vaticanus(designated as B), which dates to the fourth century. It containsalmost all of the OT and the complete NT, except for substantialportions between Hebrews and Revelation. It has been in the Vatican’slibrary for over five hundred years. The fourth important uncial isCodex Bezae Cantabrigiensis (designated as D), which contains Greekand Latin copies of the four Gospels, most of Acts, and a few versesfrom 3 John. It dates from the late fourth or early fifthcentury. The fifth important uncial is Codex Washingtonianus(designated as W), which dates to the early fifth century andcontains virtually all of the four Gospels.
Thethird category of NT manuscripts is minuscules. These texts date fromthe ninth century and later and comprise approximately 2,800manuscripts, which are denoted by a number not beginning with zero.Among the more important minuscules are Codex 1, Codex 13, and Codex33, which, along with their relatives, are considered reliablewitnesses to early families of texts such as the Caesarean (1) or theAlexandrian (33). Codex 13 and its relatives are noteworthy forhaving the story of the adulterous woman at the end of Luke 21instead of in John 8. The final two groups of NT manuscripts, thelectionaries and quotations in patristic sources, are not manuscriptsin the strict sense of the term, but their use of portions of the NTpresents important witnesses for the practice of textual criticism.
Versions.With the spread of Christianity during the time of the Roman Empire,the NT was translated into the language of the native peoples. Theseversions of the NT are important both for textual criticism of the NTand for the interpretive decisions that are reflected in how the textwas rendered into a new language. Among the most important earlyversions of the NT are the following.
AsLatin began to displace Greek as the dominant language of the empire,there was a need for a Latin version of the Bible. The earliesttranslation, known as the Old Latin or Itala, was made probably inthe late second century, though the oldest manuscript (CodexVercellensis) is from the fourth century. With the proliferation ofLatin texts a standardized Latin translation became desirable, and inAD 382 Jerome was commissioned by Pope Damasus to provide a newtranslation known as the Vulgate.
Anotherfamily of NT versions is the Syriac texts. Around the late secondcentury the four Gospels were translated into a version known as theOld Syriac. It is extant in two incomplete manuscripts that areprobably fifth century. The translation that became the standardSyriac text is the Pesh*tta, which was produced in the early fifthcentury. It does not contain 2 Peter, 2–3 John, Jude, orRevelation because these were not considered canonical among theSyriac churches.
Otherimportant versions of the NT from antiquity are the Coptic, Armenian,Georgian, and Ethiopic translations.
OldTestament
Hebrewtexts.The text that has served as the basis for most modern editions andtranslations of the Hebrew OT is the Masoretic Text (MT), named afterthe Masoretes, the Jewish scribes who transmitted the text and addedvocalization, accentuation, and notes to the consonantal text. Themost important Masoretic manuscripts date from the end of the ninthcentury to the early eleventh century. Notable among these is theLeningrad Codex (AD 1008), denoted as L, which is the earliestMasoretic manuscript of the entire OT. Also important are the AleppoCodex (c. AD 925), denoted as A, which preserves all of the OT exceptfor most of the Pentateuch; the British Museum MS Or. 4445 (c. AD925), denoted as B, which contains most of the Pentateuch; and theCairo Codex (c. AD 896), denoted C, which contains Joshua throughKings and also the Prophets.
Althoughthese manuscripts are much later than the biblical period, theirreliability was largely confirmed with the discovery of the DSSbeginning in 1947. Among the Qumran library are many manuscripts ofbiblical books as well as biblical commentaries, apocrphyal andpseudepigraphal works, and sectarian literature. All the OT books arerepresented among the scrolls that were found except Esther andNehemiah, though the latter is usually presumed to have been at theend of Ezra but has not survived. The books with the most manuscriptsare, in order, Psalms, Deuteronomy, and Isaiah. One of the strikingcharacteristics of these scrolls is that they reflect a diversity oftext types. For example, there is a copy of Jeremiah that is close tothe Masoretic version, but also a manuscript of Jeremiah similar tothe much shorter version found in the Septuagint (the Greektranslation of the OT).
AnotherHebrew text of the OT is that of the Samaritan Pentateuch, which isthe text transmitted by the Samaritans. It is similar to the MT insome respects but also has differences that reflect theologicalinterests. The main manuscripts for the Samaritan Pentateuch are fromthe twelfth century.
Versions.Between the third and first centuries BC, the entire OT wastranslated into Greek. This version, known as the Septuagint(designated by the abbreviation LXX), became the main version of theOT used by the early church. Due to its adoption by the church, theLXX has been preserved in numerous manuscripts, including Sinaiticus,Alexandrinus, and Vaticanus. By the late first century BC or earlyfirst century AD, there were two revisions of the Greek text: theProto-Lucianic version and the Kaige recension. The latter aimed torevise the Greek toward closer conformity with the Hebrew text andderives its name from its peculiar tendency to translate the Hebrewword gam (“also”) with the Greek work kaige. In thesecond century AD three other Greek translations were made by Aquila,Theodotion, and Symmachus, all of which revised the Kaige recensionback toward the MT.
Anotherimportant early version of the OT consists of the Targumim, which areAramaic translations or paraphrases (and sometimes extensiveelaborations) of OT books. The official Targumim for Judaism areTargum Onqelos for the Pentateuch (c. second century AD), which isquite literal, and Targum Pseudo-Jonathan for the Prophets (sometimebefore the fourth century AD), which ranges from being quite literalto somewhat paraphrastic. Unofficial Targumim for the Pentateuchinclude Targum Neofiti and Targum Pseudo-Jonathan. There are alsovarious unofficial Targumim for the Writings section of the OT,except for Daniel and Ezra-Nehemiah (which are already written partlyin Aramaic).
Besidesthe Greek and Aramaic translations, there are other importantversions of the OT. Sometime in either the third or fourth centuryAD, the Pesh*tta of the OT was produced, though there is evidencethat there were earlier Syriac translations of some books alreadycirculating. Also important is a group of Latin translations knowncollectively as the Old Latin. These versions were produced sometimeduring the second century AD and were primarily made from alreadyexisting Greek translations rather than Hebrew texts. As with the NT,a later Latin translation was made by Jerome for the Vulgate.
Bible Texts and VersionsThe NT and the OT have considerably different but partiallyoverlapping textual histories. For clarity, it is best to begin witha survey of the NT manuscripts and versions.
Greektexts.Although no autographs of the NT books survive, there exist more thanfive thousand Greek texts covering anywhere from a portion of a fewverses up to the complete NT. Traditionally, these texts have beenclassified into five groups: papyri, uncials, minuscules,lectionaries, and quotations in patristic texts. The most importantmanuscripts are listed below.
Theearliest texts of the NT are those written on papyrus. Ninety-eightof these manuscripts have been identified, and they are representedby a “P” with a numerical superscript. The earliest ofthese papyri is P52, which contains parts of four verses in John 18and dates to the early second century. For substantial portions ofthe NT text, the most important papyri are found in the ChesterBeatty and Bodmer collections. P45, P46, and P47, all from theChester Beatty collection, are from the third century and containlarge sections of the four Gospels, eight of the Pauline Epistles,Hebrews, and Revelation. Within the Bodmer collection in Geneva arefour very important codices. P66 dates to around AD 200 and preservesmost of the Gospel of John. P72 dates to the third century andcontains the earliest copies of 1–2 Peter and Jude, which arepreserved in their entirety, as well as Greek translations of Pss.33–34. P74 dates to the seventh century and contains portionsof Acts, James, 1–2 Peter, 1–3 John, and Jude. Finally,P75, which dates to the early third century, contains most of Lukeand John 1–15. It is the oldest extant copy of Luke. Among theremaining papyri, forty-three have been dated to the early fourthcentury or before.
Thesecond category of manuscripts is the uncials, which usually werewritten on parchment and span the fourth through the tenth centuries.About 270 uncials are known, and they range from a few verses up tocomplete copies of the NT or even the entire Bible. Uncialsoriginally were denoted by capital letters, but when the number ofmanuscripts grew beyond these limits, a new system was employedwhereby each manuscript was given a number always beginning withzero. However, the most important uncials are still usually known bytheir letter. Among the most important uncials are the following fivemanuscripts. Codex Sinaiticus (designated by the Hebrew letter à)dates to the fourth century and is the only uncial that contains theentire NT. It also has almost all of the OT as well as the earlyChristian writings the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd ofHermas. Dating from the fifth century, Codex Alexandrinus (designatedas A) contains the OT, most of the NT—lacking only portions ofMatthew, John, and 2 Corinthians—and 1–2 Clement.Along with Sinaiticus, the most important uncial is Codex Vaticanus(designated as B), which dates to the fourth century. It containsalmost all of the OT and the complete NT, except for substantialportions between Hebrews and Revelation. It has been in the Vatican’slibrary for over five hundred years. The fourth important uncial isCodex Bezae Cantabrigiensis (designated as D), which contains Greekand Latin copies of the four Gospels, most of Acts, and a few versesfrom 3 John. It dates from the late fourth or early fifthcentury. The fifth important uncial is Codex Washingtonianus(designated as W), which dates to the early fifth century andcontains virtually all of the four Gospels.
Thethird category of NT manuscripts is minuscules. These texts date fromthe ninth century and later and comprise approximately 2,800manuscripts, which are denoted by a number not beginning with zero.Among the more important minuscules are Codex 1, Codex 13, and Codex33, which, along with their relatives, are considered reliablewitnesses to early families of texts such as the Caesarean (1) or theAlexandrian (33). Codex 13 and its relatives are noteworthy forhaving the story of the adulterous woman at the end of Luke 21instead of in John 8. The final two groups of NT manuscripts, thelectionaries and quotations in patristic sources, are not manuscriptsin the strict sense of the term, but their use of portions of the NTpresents important witnesses for the practice of textual criticism.
Versions.With the spread of Christianity during the time of the Roman Empire,the NT was translated into the language of the native peoples. Theseversions of the NT are important both for textual criticism of the NTand for the interpretive decisions that are reflected in how the textwas rendered into a new language. Among the most important earlyversions of the NT are the following.
AsLatin began to displace Greek as the dominant language of the empire,there was a need for a Latin version of the Bible. The earliesttranslation, known as the Old Latin or Itala, was made probably inthe late second century, though the oldest manuscript (CodexVercellensis) is from the fourth century. With the proliferation ofLatin texts a standardized Latin translation became desirable, and inAD 382 Jerome was commissioned by Pope Damasus to provide a newtranslation known as the Vulgate.
Anotherfamily of NT versions is the Syriac texts. Around the late secondcentury the four Gospels were translated into a version known as theOld Syriac. It is extant in two incomplete manuscripts that areprobably fifth century. The translation that became the standardSyriac text is the Pesh*tta, which was produced in the early fifthcentury. It does not contain 2 Peter, 2–3 John, Jude, orRevelation because these were not considered canonical among theSyriac churches.
Otherimportant versions of the NT from antiquity are the Coptic, Armenian,Georgian, and Ethiopic translations.
OldTestament
Hebrewtexts.The text that has served as the basis for most modern editions andtranslations of the Hebrew OT is the Masoretic Text (MT), named afterthe Masoretes, the Jewish scribes who transmitted the text and addedvocalization, accentuation, and notes to the consonantal text. Themost important Masoretic manuscripts date from the end of the ninthcentury to the early eleventh century. Notable among these is theLeningrad Codex (AD 1008), denoted as L, which is the earliestMasoretic manuscript of the entire OT. Also important are the AleppoCodex (c. AD 925), denoted as A, which preserves all of the OT exceptfor most of the Pentateuch; the British Museum MS Or. 4445 (c. AD925), denoted as B, which contains most of the Pentateuch; and theCairo Codex (c. AD 896), denoted C, which contains Joshua throughKings and also the Prophets.
Althoughthese manuscripts are much later than the biblical period, theirreliability was largely confirmed with the discovery of the DSSbeginning in 1947. Among the Qumran library are many manuscripts ofbiblical books as well as biblical commentaries, apocrphyal andpseudepigraphal works, and sectarian literature. All the OT books arerepresented among the scrolls that were found except Esther andNehemiah, though the latter is usually presumed to have been at theend of Ezra but has not survived. The books with the most manuscriptsare, in order, Psalms, Deuteronomy, and Isaiah. One of the strikingcharacteristics of these scrolls is that they reflect a diversity oftext types. For example, there is a copy of Jeremiah that is close tothe Masoretic version, but also a manuscript of Jeremiah similar tothe much shorter version found in the Septuagint (the Greektranslation of the OT).
AnotherHebrew text of the OT is that of the Samaritan Pentateuch, which isthe text transmitted by the Samaritans. It is similar to the MT insome respects but also has differences that reflect theologicalinterests. The main manuscripts for the Samaritan Pentateuch are fromthe twelfth century.
Versions.Between the third and first centuries BC, the entire OT wastranslated into Greek. This version, known as the Septuagint(designated by the abbreviation LXX), became the main version of theOT used by the early church. Due to its adoption by the church, theLXX has been preserved in numerous manuscripts, including Sinaiticus,Alexandrinus, and Vaticanus. By the late first century BC or earlyfirst century AD, there were two revisions of the Greek text: theProto-Lucianic version and the Kaige recension. The latter aimed torevise the Greek toward closer conformity with the Hebrew text andderives its name from its peculiar tendency to translate the Hebrewword gam (“also”) with the Greek work kaige. In thesecond century AD three other Greek translations were made by Aquila,Theodotion, and Symmachus, all of which revised the Kaige recensionback toward the MT.
Anotherimportant early version of the OT consists of the Targumim, which areAramaic translations or paraphrases (and sometimes extensiveelaborations) of OT books. The official Targumim for Judaism areTargum Onqelos for the Pentateuch (c. second century AD), which isquite literal, and Targum Pseudo-Jonathan for the Prophets (sometimebefore the fourth century AD), which ranges from being quite literalto somewhat paraphrastic. Unofficial Targumim for the Pentateuchinclude Targum Neofiti and Targum Pseudo-Jonathan. There are alsovarious unofficial Targumim for the Writings section of the OT,except for Daniel and Ezra-Nehemiah (which are already written partlyin Aramaic).
Besidesthe Greek and Aramaic translations, there are other importantversions of the OT. Sometime in either the third or fourth centuryAD, the Pesh*tta of the OT was produced, though there is evidencethat there were earlier Syriac translations of some books alreadycirculating. Also important is a group of Latin translations knowncollectively as the Old Latin. These versions were produced sometimeduring the second century AD and were primarily made from alreadyexisting Greek translations rather than Hebrew texts. As with the NT,a later Latin translation was made by Jerome for the Vulgate.
An early, tangible reminder of the goodness of God inrescuing his people from their sins (NIV: “bronze snake”).During the wilderness wanderings, the land of Edom lay in the path ofthe Israelites. The Israelites requested permission to pass throughEdom, which the Edomites strongly denied (Num. 20:14–21).Forced to circle around Edom and head far out of their way, theIsraelites began to complain yet again (Num. 21:4–5; see alsoExod. 15:22–24; 16:1–3; 17:1–7). God responded bysending venomous snakes that killed many people (Num. 21:6). When thepeople admitted their sin and asked Moses to pray to God on theirbehalf, God commanded Moses to do a strange thing: he was to make asnake and put it on a pole. “Then when anyone was bitten by asnake and looked at the bronze snake, they lived” (21:9).
Thisseemingly insignificant and bizarre episode in Israelite historyresurfaces twice in the Bible. The good king Hezekiah destroyed thebronze serpent during his purification of the land of Judah fromidolatrous worship. The writer of Kings explains that the serpent,which had come to be called “Nehushtan,” had itselfbecome an idol, as the Israelites had been burning incense to it(2 Kings 18:4). Jesus also makes mention of the bronze serpentin his famous dialogue with Nicodemus. In speaking of hisimpending death, Jesus explains to Nicodemus that he, the Son of Man,must be lifted up from the earth, “just as Moses lifted up thesnake in the desert” (John 3:14). Those who believe in Jesuswill have eternal life because of his being lifted up—that is,crucified (see John 12:32–34). Jesus’ reference to thebronze serpent emphasizes the simplicity of salvation through Christ.Just as the Israelites needed only to look to the bronze serpent,trusting in God’s provision for their salvation from physicaldeath, so also those who are dying in their sins need only look tothe perfect sacrifice of Jesus Christ, trusting in God’sprovision for their salvation from spiritual death.
An early, tangible reminder of the goodness of God inrescuing his people from their sins (NIV: “bronze snake”).During the wilderness wanderings, the land of Edom lay in the path ofthe Israelites. The Israelites requested permission to pass throughEdom, which the Edomites strongly denied (Num. 20:14–21).Forced to circle around Edom and head far out of their way, theIsraelites began to complain yet again (Num. 21:4–5; see alsoExod. 15:22–24; 16:1–3; 17:1–7). God responded bysending venomous snakes that killed many people (Num. 21:6). When thepeople admitted their sin and asked Moses to pray to God on theirbehalf, God commanded Moses to do a strange thing: he was to make asnake and put it on a pole. “Then when anyone was bitten by asnake and looked at the bronze snake, they lived” (21:9).
Thisseemingly insignificant and bizarre episode in Israelite historyresurfaces twice in the Bible. The good king Hezekiah destroyed thebronze serpent during his purification of the land of Judah fromidolatrous worship. The writer of Kings explains that the serpent,which had come to be called “Nehushtan,” had itselfbecome an idol, as the Israelites had been burning incense to it(2 Kings 18:4). Jesus also makes mention of the bronze serpentin his famous dialogue with Nicodemus. In speaking of hisimpending death, Jesus explains to Nicodemus that he, the Son of Man,must be lifted up from the earth, “just as Moses lifted up thesnake in the desert” (John 3:14). Those who believe in Jesuswill have eternal life because of his being lifted up—that is,crucified (see John 12:32–34). Jesus’ reference to thebronze serpent emphasizes the simplicity of salvation through Christ.Just as the Israelites needed only to look to the bronze serpent,trusting in God’s provision for their salvation from physicaldeath, so also those who are dying in their sins need only look tothe perfect sacrifice of Jesus Christ, trusting in God’sprovision for their salvation from spiritual death.
An early, tangible reminder of the goodness of God inrescuing his people from their sins (NIV: “bronze snake”).During the wilderness wanderings, the land of Edom lay in the path ofthe Israelites. The Israelites requested permission to pass throughEdom, which the Edomites strongly denied (Num. 20:14–21).Forced to circle around Edom and head far out of their way, theIsraelites began to complain yet again (Num. 21:4–5; see alsoExod. 15:22–24; 16:1–3; 17:1–7). God responded bysending venomous snakes that killed many people (Num. 21:6). When thepeople admitted their sin and asked Moses to pray to God on theirbehalf, God commanded Moses to do a strange thing: he was to make asnake and put it on a pole. “Then when anyone was bitten by asnake and looked at the bronze snake, they lived” (21:9).
Thisseemingly insignificant and bizarre episode in Israelite historyresurfaces twice in the Bible. The good king Hezekiah destroyed thebronze serpent during his purification of the land of Judah fromidolatrous worship. The writer of Kings explains that the serpent,which had come to be called “Nehushtan,” had itselfbecome an idol, as the Israelites had been burning incense to it(2 Kings 18:4). Jesus also makes mention of the bronze serpentin his famous dialogue with Nicodemus. In speaking of hisimpending death, Jesus explains to Nicodemus that he, the Son of Man,must be lifted up from the earth, “just as Moses lifted up thesnake in the desert” (John 3:14). Those who believe in Jesuswill have eternal life because of his being lifted up—that is,crucified (see John 12:32–34). Jesus’ reference to thebronze serpent emphasizes the simplicity of salvation through Christ.Just as the Israelites needed only to look to the bronze serpent,trusting in God’s provision for their salvation from physicaldeath, so also those who are dying in their sins need only look tothe perfect sacrifice of Jesus Christ, trusting in God’sprovision for their salvation from spiritual death.
In the OT, numerous Hebrew terms are translated as “chief”or describe a chief or leader. Although the noun ’ayilliterally means “ram” (the leader of a flock), it is usedfiguratively to refer to foreign rulers (Exod. 15:15; Josh. 13:21;1 Chron. 1:51). The basic meaning of ro’sh is “head,”but context often allows the term to be nuanced as “leader”(Exod. 18:25; Num. 14:4; 25:4; Josh. 23:2). The patriarch of thefamily was considered to be its ro’sh (Exod. 6:14; Num. 7:2),as was the chief priest in relation to the people (2 Kings25:18; 2 Chron. 19:11; Jer. 52:24). One such chief priest wasAmariah, who was involved in reformations during the rule ofJehoshaphat (2 Chron. 19:11). The most common designation,however, is sar, which can be used in construct to refer to numerousprofessions: “prison warden” (Gen. 39:21), “chiefcupbearer” (Gen. 40:2), “chief official” (Dan.1:7). The term nagid is used frequently as a designation for a(future) king (1 Sam. 9:16; 10:1; 13:14; 25:30; 1 Kings1:35). The term nasi’ is used in reference to tribal chiefs(Gen. 17:20; 23:6; 34:2) and aristocracy (Exod. 16:22; Josh. 9:15;1 Chron. 2:10).
Inthe NT, the Greek noun archōn belongs to an extended network ofwords that use the prefix arch- and generally convey the meaning of“rule” or “authority.” The noun archōnis used in reference to humans, demons, and divinity. Jesus spoke of“ruling officials” who assert their authority overGentiles, but he instructed his followers to seek the posture ofservitude to others (Matt. 20:25–26). Even though Satan iscalled the archōn of this world (John 12:31; 14:30; 16:11; cf.Eph. 2:2), Jesus is the true archōn over all the earth (Rev.1:5). Various individuals are referred to as “ruler of thesynagogue” (archisynagōgos) in the NT. These leaders werechiefly responsible for the physical upkeep of the building and thearrangements of worship in the Jewish synagogue. Among the namedleadership are Jairus in Galilee (Mark 5:21–43; Luke 8:40–56;cf. Matt. 9:18–26) and Crispus (Acts 18:8; cf. 1 Cor.1:14) and Sosthenes in Corinth (Acts 18:17). Other administrativeauthorities may be understood as “eminent rulers” or“officials” (cf. Acts 16:19; 17:6).
Typesof Crosses
Across is an upright wooden beam or post on which persons were eithertied or nailed as a means of torture and execution. A cross couldhave several different shapes. The earliest was not a cross at allbut rather a simple stake or pole on which persons were impaled. Thissimple stake evolved over time into more elaborate shapes with theaddition of a crossbeam that was secured to the upright stake. TheLatin cross was shaped like a t and was the type most commonly usedby the Romans. Jesus was crucified probably on a Latin cross, whichallowed for a convenient place for a sign (called a titlos in John19:19) to be placed above his head (Matt. 27:37 pars.). Another formof cross, now referred to as a St. Anthony’s cross, wasshaped like a T, with the crossbeam affixed at the top of the uprightbeam. A cross shaped like an X, having a crisscross pattern, is alsoknown as a St. Andrew’s cross. Tradition holds that theapostle Peter was crucified upside down on this type of cross. Across shaped like a +, the Greek cross, has the crossbeam in thecenter.
Crucifixionin Ancient Times
Inancient times, crucifixion was a method of execution used by manypeoples, including the Assyrians, the Phoenicians, the Babylonians,the Persians, the Medes, and the Greeks. Historically, crucifixion’sbarbaric predecessor was impalement. Victims often were beheadedfirst, and then their lifeless bodies were forced onto a large stakeor spike (Gen. 40:19; 1 Sam. 31:9–10). Impalementoriginally was more about triumph and exposure than execution (Deut.21:22–23; Josh. 8:29; 10:26; 2 Sam. 4:12; 21:9–10).But the Assyrians impaled their enemies by sticking them, stillalive, onto pointed stakes, thus utilizing impalement as a method ofexecution. The book of Esther probably reflects the practice ofimpalement in the Persian period by describing how the king’sofficials were executed (2:23; 5:14; KJV: “hanged”). Inthese verses, the Hebrew word that some English versions translate as“gallows” (’ets) actually means “tree,”and a noose for hanging was not used in Persia during this period.Impalement became a common form of execution.
Impalementas a means of execution eventually gave way to crucifixion.Crucifixion was especially prized by the Phoenicians, whose normalmethods of execution—drowning, immersion in boiling oil,impalement, stoning, and burning—were seen as too quick andeasy. Wanting their victims to suffer longer, they used crucifixion,a more severe form of execution. The Greeks also crucified victims ona stake or a cross. Alexander the Great crucified two thousandinhabitants of Tyre along the shoreline when he captured the city in332 BC.
Thereis no evidence that ancient Israel fastened people to a stake or across as a method of execution. Instead, stoning was the preferredmethod of execution in Israel and was commanded by the law (Lev.20:2; Deut. 22:24). The law did, however, permit the public displayof an offender’s body “on a tree” or a “pole”after being executed (Deut. 21:22). The same expression is used inthe book of Acts to describe Jesus’ crucifixion (5:30; 10:39;13:29). In contrast to pagan nations that would leave a corpsehanging on a cross until the flesh either rotted away or was devouredby vultures, Israel was commanded to take the body down, not lettingit remain on the tree overnight (Deut. 21:23). This explains why theJews were so adamant that Jesus’ body be taken down before theSabbath commenced at sunset (John 19:31). Being hung on a tree wasespecially abhorrent to Israel because it reflected God’s curseupon the offender (Deut. 21:23). Jesus was accursed by God as he hungon the cross, bearing the sins of the world (Gal. 3:13).
Crucifixionin New Testament Times
Notlong before the Romans took over Palestine, the Jewish rulerAlexander Jannaeus crucified about eight hundred Pharisees whoopposed him in 86 BC. This gruesome event was out of character forthe Jewish nation and was frowned upon by the Jews of the day as wellas by the later Jewish historian Josephus. But it was the Romans whoperfected crucifixion as a means of torture and execution. The Romanscalled crucifixion “slaves’ punishment” because itwas intended for the lowest members of society. It became thepreferred method of execution for political crimes such as desertion,spying, rebellion, and insurrection. Roman crucifixion was common inNT times and extended well into the fourth century AD. The emperorConstantine converted to Christianity in AD 312 and abolishedcrucifixion altogether. The cross became a symbol of Christiansacrifice instead of a barbarous method of torture and execution.
RomanCrucifixion
Crucifixionwas a barbaric method of torture and execution whereby a victim waseither nailed or tied to a wooden cross and left to die a long,agonizing death. It often was reserved for the most offensivecriminals, such as thieves (Matt. 27:38), murderers, insurrectionists(Mark 15:7), and other political rebels. Disobedient slaves commonlywere crucified. Crucifixion was so demeaning that Roman citizens wereexempt and could be crucified only by direct decree of the emperor.Crucifixion also was used as a triumphant sign in times of war asvictors demonstrated their conquests by hoisting their enemies uponcrosses for all to see. It was viewed as a public symbol of strengthand intimidation. Adding insult to injury, executioners strippedtheir victims and crucified them alongside busy roads and in publicplaces where onlookers could gaze in horror.
Criminalsoften were flogged severely before crucifixion in apseudo-compassionate effort to speed up the death process experiencedon the cross (John 19:1). The victim was stripped, tied to a post,and then brutally beaten by several Roman torturers using whips withsharp pieces of bone or metal at the ends of the lashes. Suchfloggings were said to leave the victim’s bones and entrailsexposed. The torturers did not stop until they either exhaustedthemselves or were called off by their commanding officers.
Afterthe flogging, the offender was forced to carry the crossbeam, oftenweighing seventy-five to one hundred pounds, on his or her shouldersto the crucifixion site (John 19:17). The main upright beam, standingseven to nine feet tall, remained at the site of crucifixion and wasused repeatedly. The victim was then laid down with arms stretchedout across the beam and usually tied into position. Once the victim’sarms were secured by ropes, a soldier searched for the “hollowspot” in the wrist located just above the flexion area near thecarpal bones. The metacarpal bones of the palms were too weak tosupport the weight of the body on the cross, so the wrist was astronger alternative. However, the use of ropes to support the armsmade the choice of little consequence. Either location wasacceptable. A hammer was used to drive five-inch nails through bothwrists, affixing the victim to the crossbeam. It was customary tooffer the victim a narcotic co*cktail to help ease the pain ofcrucifixion. Jesus refused this drink (Matt. 27:34; Mark 15:23).
Afterthe victim’s arms were nailed to the crossbeam, it was hoistedup and secured to the upright post. This alone was very hard on thefatigued body of the victim, who already had lost a considerableamount of blood. This quick, upward motion caused orthostatichypotension—very low blood pressure caused by a rapid verticalshift in body position. The victim’s blood pressure would dropto half of normal, while the pulse rate doubled. Victims frequentlyfainted due to the rush of blood away from the head during thisupward motion. This motion probably is the imagery behind Jesus’“lifted up” sayings (John 3:14; 8:28; 12:32). Jesus wasquite literally lifted up onto the cross.
Nextcame the nailing of the feet. The Romans had several different waysof nailing the feet to the cross. Roman soldiers were notorious fortwisting and contorting victims into odd positions while nailing themto the cross. Sometimes a victim’s legs were stretcheddownward, feet crossed, and one nail driven through both. A supportblock typically was placed behind the victim to support the weight ofthe body on the cross. A heel bone of a crucified man named“Yehohanan” (John) was discovered in an ossuary north ofJerusalem in 1968. A single nail had been driven through the side ofthe heel. Either the body was twisted so that the nail was driventhrough both heels, the right above the left, or each heel was nailedto opposite sides of the upright beam causing the victim to straddlethe cross. A piece of wood was held against the heel before the nailwas driven in, to act as a washer, preventing the foot from tearingfree. The ossuary’s inscription describes Yehohanan as “theone hanged with knees apart.” Once nailed to the cross, thevictim often suffered for several hours, even days, exposed to thehot sun as well as the insults of those passing by on the busy road(cf. Matt. 27:39; Mark 15:29; Luke 23:35; John 19:20). Extreme thirstwas brought on by massive blood loss and exposure to the elements(John 19:28).
Becausedeath could take several hours, it sometimes was hastened by acrushing blow to the legs with a club. Victims were unable to pushtheir bodies upward to gasp for air or to keep their bloodcirculating. This final blow to the legs also caused intense pain andusually was enough to throw the body into shock, with death followingsoon afterward. Jesus was already dead when the soldiers approachedto break his legs (John 19:32–33). This fulfilled what waswritten in the Scriptures: “Not one of his bones will bebroken” (John 19:36; cf. Exod. 12:46; Num. 9:12; Ps. 34:20).Instead of breaking Jesus’ legs, a soldier thrust a spear intohis side, which brought forth a sudden flow of blood and water,indicating that he was truly dead (John 19:34). This too was tofulfill Scripture: “They will look on the one they havepierced” (John 19:37; cf. Zech. 12:10). Bodies often were lefton the crosses to be eaten by scavenging birds such as vultures. TheJews demanded that the bodies of Jesus and the two thieves crucifiedwith him be taken down before the Sabbath that began that evening(John 19:31).
PhysicalDeath by Crucifixion
Deathby crucifixion resulted from a combination of factors. The mostobvious was massive blood loss. With the nails being driven throughthe extensive artery systems of the wrists and feet, the victim losta lot of blood. The severe flogging before being crucified alsoplayed a role and took its toll on the body. Blood loss also led to adepletion of oxygen supply to the vital tissues. Major organs faileddue to lack of oxygenation. Another factor leading to death wassuffocation or asphyxiation. The weight of the body hanging on thecross was too great for the tendons and muscles in the arms, so thevictims were unable to hold themselves up in order to take in deepbreaths. The victim’s upper body continued to sink lower untilthe lungs became too compressed and unable to take in large volumesof air. Victims could force themselves upward to gasp air by usingtheir legs, but this was extremely painful. Preventing the victimfrom pushing upward in order to breathe was another reason forbreaking the legs. The victim slowly suffocated for hours.
Theultimate cause of death was an eventual heart rupture due to massiveblood loss and lack of oxygenation. As the pulse raced and bloodpressure increased, the heart eventually burst due to the stress.This helps explain the reference to the “sudden flow of bloodand water” in John 19:34. In the case of heart rupture, theright side of the heart still has some blood left in it while the sacthat surrounds the heart, the pericardium, fills with water. Thesoldier’s spear pierced this sac and the heart, causing bothblood and water to flow out.
TheMeaning of Jesus’ Crucifixion
TheOT teaches that it is blood that makes atonement for sin (Lev.17:11). Just as sacrificial lambs shed their blood on the altar forthe sins of Israel, Jesus shed his blood on the cross for the sins ofthe world (John 1:29). The crucifixion of Jesus was the greatestatoning event in history. His blood, which provided the means for anew covenant, was poured out for many on the cross (Matt. 26:28). Thecross, as gruesome as it was, was the means through which Christ died“for our sins” (Gal. 1:4). Jesus freely scorned the shameof the cross so that we might be reconciled to God by his shed blood(Col. 1:20; Heb. 12:2).
Jesusalso bore the curse of God in our place when he died on the cross.The one who hangs on a tree is divinely cursed (Deut. 21:23). God’scurse is a curse upon sin, death, and fallenness. Jesus took God’scurse upon himself in order to redeem us from that curse (Gal. 3:13).
Jesusdemonstrated the humble nature of his mission and ministry by hisobedience to death, even death on the cross (Phil. 2:8). For Jesusthe cross was not simply his martyrdom, as if he simply died for aworthy cause; it was the pinnacle example of obedience and love inthe Bible. Jesus called his followers to take up a cross and followhis example of selfless sacrifice (Matt. 16:24). Jesus’ crossis a symbol of his love, obedience, and selflessness.
Mostof all, the cross reveals the unconditional love of God, who offeredhis Son as the atoning sacrifice for sin (John 3:16; 1 John4:10). The brutal cross reveals the beautiful love of Jesus, whowillingly laid down his life (1 John 3:16).
Typesof Crosses
Across is an upright wooden beam or post on which persons were eithertied or nailed as a means of torture and execution. A cross couldhave several different shapes. The earliest was not a cross at allbut rather a simple stake or pole on which persons were impaled. Thissimple stake evolved over time into more elaborate shapes with theaddition of a crossbeam that was secured to the upright stake. TheLatin cross was shaped like a t and was the type most commonly usedby the Romans. Jesus was crucified probably on a Latin cross, whichallowed for a convenient place for a sign (called a titlos in John19:19) to be placed above his head (Matt. 27:37 pars.). Another formof cross, now referred to as a St. Anthony’s cross, wasshaped like a T, with the crossbeam affixed at the top of the uprightbeam. A cross shaped like an X, having a crisscross pattern, is alsoknown as a St. Andrew’s cross. Tradition holds that theapostle Peter was crucified upside down on this type of cross. Across shaped like a +, the Greek cross, has the crossbeam in thecenter.
Crucifixionin Ancient Times
Inancient times, crucifixion was a method of execution used by manypeoples, including the Assyrians, the Phoenicians, the Babylonians,the Persians, the Medes, and the Greeks. Historically, crucifixion’sbarbaric predecessor was impalement. Victims often were beheadedfirst, and then their lifeless bodies were forced onto a large stakeor spike (Gen. 40:19; 1 Sam. 31:9–10). Impalementoriginally was more about triumph and exposure than execution (Deut.21:22–23; Josh. 8:29; 10:26; 2 Sam. 4:12; 21:9–10).But the Assyrians impaled their enemies by sticking them, stillalive, onto pointed stakes, thus utilizing impalement as a method ofexecution. The book of Esther probably reflects the practice ofimpalement in the Persian period by describing how the king’sofficials were executed (2:23; 5:14; KJV: “hanged”). Inthese verses, the Hebrew word that some English versions translate as“gallows” (’ets) actually means “tree,”and a noose for hanging was not used in Persia during this period.Impalement became a common form of execution.
Impalementas a means of execution eventually gave way to crucifixion.Crucifixion was especially prized by the Phoenicians, whose normalmethods of execution—drowning, immersion in boiling oil,impalement, stoning, and burning—were seen as too quick andeasy. Wanting their victims to suffer longer, they used crucifixion,a more severe form of execution. The Greeks also crucified victims ona stake or a cross. Alexander the Great crucified two thousandinhabitants of Tyre along the shoreline when he captured the city in332 BC.
Thereis no evidence that ancient Israel fastened people to a stake or across as a method of execution. Instead, stoning was the preferredmethod of execution in Israel and was commanded by the law (Lev.20:2; Deut. 22:24). The law did, however, permit the public displayof an offender’s body “on a tree” or a “pole”after being executed (Deut. 21:22). The same expression is used inthe book of Acts to describe Jesus’ crucifixion (5:30; 10:39;13:29). In contrast to pagan nations that would leave a corpsehanging on a cross until the flesh either rotted away or was devouredby vultures, Israel was commanded to take the body down, not lettingit remain on the tree overnight (Deut. 21:23). This explains why theJews were so adamant that Jesus’ body be taken down before theSabbath commenced at sunset (John 19:31). Being hung on a tree wasespecially abhorrent to Israel because it reflected God’s curseupon the offender (Deut. 21:23). Jesus was accursed by God as he hungon the cross, bearing the sins of the world (Gal. 3:13).
Crucifixionin New Testament Times
Notlong before the Romans took over Palestine, the Jewish rulerAlexander Jannaeus crucified about eight hundred Pharisees whoopposed him in 86 BC. This gruesome event was out of character forthe Jewish nation and was frowned upon by the Jews of the day as wellas by the later Jewish historian Josephus. But it was the Romans whoperfected crucifixion as a means of torture and execution. The Romanscalled crucifixion “slaves’ punishment” because itwas intended for the lowest members of society. It became thepreferred method of execution for political crimes such as desertion,spying, rebellion, and insurrection. Roman crucifixion was common inNT times and extended well into the fourth century AD. The emperorConstantine converted to Christianity in AD 312 and abolishedcrucifixion altogether. The cross became a symbol of Christiansacrifice instead of a barbarous method of torture and execution.
RomanCrucifixion
Crucifixionwas a barbaric method of torture and execution whereby a victim waseither nailed or tied to a wooden cross and left to die a long,agonizing death. It often was reserved for the most offensivecriminals, such as thieves (Matt. 27:38), murderers, insurrectionists(Mark 15:7), and other political rebels. Disobedient slaves commonlywere crucified. Crucifixion was so demeaning that Roman citizens wereexempt and could be crucified only by direct decree of the emperor.Crucifixion also was used as a triumphant sign in times of war asvictors demonstrated their conquests by hoisting their enemies uponcrosses for all to see. It was viewed as a public symbol of strengthand intimidation. Adding insult to injury, executioners strippedtheir victims and crucified them alongside busy roads and in publicplaces where onlookers could gaze in horror.
Criminalsoften were flogged severely before crucifixion in apseudo-compassionate effort to speed up the death process experiencedon the cross (John 19:1). The victim was stripped, tied to a post,and then brutally beaten by several Roman torturers using whips withsharp pieces of bone or metal at the ends of the lashes. Suchfloggings were said to leave the victim’s bones and entrailsexposed. The torturers did not stop until they either exhaustedthemselves or were called off by their commanding officers.
Afterthe flogging, the offender was forced to carry the crossbeam, oftenweighing seventy-five to one hundred pounds, on his or her shouldersto the crucifixion site (John 19:17). The main upright beam, standingseven to nine feet tall, remained at the site of crucifixion and wasused repeatedly. The victim was then laid down with arms stretchedout across the beam and usually tied into position. Once the victim’sarms were secured by ropes, a soldier searched for the “hollowspot” in the wrist located just above the flexion area near thecarpal bones. The metacarpal bones of the palms were too weak tosupport the weight of the body on the cross, so the wrist was astronger alternative. However, the use of ropes to support the armsmade the choice of little consequence. Either location wasacceptable. A hammer was used to drive five-inch nails through bothwrists, affixing the victim to the crossbeam. It was customary tooffer the victim a narcotic co*cktail to help ease the pain ofcrucifixion. Jesus refused this drink (Matt. 27:34; Mark 15:23).
Afterthe victim’s arms were nailed to the crossbeam, it was hoistedup and secured to the upright post. This alone was very hard on thefatigued body of the victim, who already had lost a considerableamount of blood. This quick, upward motion caused orthostatichypotension—very low blood pressure caused by a rapid verticalshift in body position. The victim’s blood pressure would dropto half of normal, while the pulse rate doubled. Victims frequentlyfainted due to the rush of blood away from the head during thisupward motion. This motion probably is the imagery behind Jesus’“lifted up” sayings (John 3:14; 8:28; 12:32). Jesus wasquite literally lifted up onto the cross.
Nextcame the nailing of the feet. The Romans had several different waysof nailing the feet to the cross. Roman soldiers were notorious fortwisting and contorting victims into odd positions while nailing themto the cross. Sometimes a victim’s legs were stretcheddownward, feet crossed, and one nail driven through both. A supportblock typically was placed behind the victim to support the weight ofthe body on the cross. A heel bone of a crucified man named“Yehohanan” (John) was discovered in an ossuary north ofJerusalem in 1968. A single nail had been driven through the side ofthe heel. Either the body was twisted so that the nail was driventhrough both heels, the right above the left, or each heel was nailedto opposite sides of the upright beam causing the victim to straddlethe cross. A piece of wood was held against the heel before the nailwas driven in, to act as a washer, preventing the foot from tearingfree. The ossuary’s inscription describes Yehohanan as “theone hanged with knees apart.” Once nailed to the cross, thevictim often suffered for several hours, even days, exposed to thehot sun as well as the insults of those passing by on the busy road(cf. Matt. 27:39; Mark 15:29; Luke 23:35; John 19:20). Extreme thirstwas brought on by massive blood loss and exposure to the elements(John 19:28).
Becausedeath could take several hours, it sometimes was hastened by acrushing blow to the legs with a club. Victims were unable to pushtheir bodies upward to gasp for air or to keep their bloodcirculating. This final blow to the legs also caused intense pain andusually was enough to throw the body into shock, with death followingsoon afterward. Jesus was already dead when the soldiers approachedto break his legs (John 19:32–33). This fulfilled what waswritten in the Scriptures: “Not one of his bones will bebroken” (John 19:36; cf. Exod. 12:46; Num. 9:12; Ps. 34:20).Instead of breaking Jesus’ legs, a soldier thrust a spear intohis side, which brought forth a sudden flow of blood and water,indicating that he was truly dead (John 19:34). This too was tofulfill Scripture: “They will look on the one they havepierced” (John 19:37; cf. Zech. 12:10). Bodies often were lefton the crosses to be eaten by scavenging birds such as vultures. TheJews demanded that the bodies of Jesus and the two thieves crucifiedwith him be taken down before the Sabbath that began that evening(John 19:31).
PhysicalDeath by Crucifixion
Deathby crucifixion resulted from a combination of factors. The mostobvious was massive blood loss. With the nails being driven throughthe extensive artery systems of the wrists and feet, the victim losta lot of blood. The severe flogging before being crucified alsoplayed a role and took its toll on the body. Blood loss also led to adepletion of oxygen supply to the vital tissues. Major organs faileddue to lack of oxygenation. Another factor leading to death wassuffocation or asphyxiation. The weight of the body hanging on thecross was too great for the tendons and muscles in the arms, so thevictims were unable to hold themselves up in order to take in deepbreaths. The victim’s upper body continued to sink lower untilthe lungs became too compressed and unable to take in large volumesof air. Victims could force themselves upward to gasp air by usingtheir legs, but this was extremely painful. Preventing the victimfrom pushing upward in order to breathe was another reason forbreaking the legs. The victim slowly suffocated for hours.
Theultimate cause of death was an eventual heart rupture due to massiveblood loss and lack of oxygenation. As the pulse raced and bloodpressure increased, the heart eventually burst due to the stress.This helps explain the reference to the “sudden flow of bloodand water” in John 19:34. In the case of heart rupture, theright side of the heart still has some blood left in it while the sacthat surrounds the heart, the pericardium, fills with water. Thesoldier’s spear pierced this sac and the heart, causing bothblood and water to flow out.
TheMeaning of Jesus’ Crucifixion
TheOT teaches that it is blood that makes atonement for sin (Lev.17:11). Just as sacrificial lambs shed their blood on the altar forthe sins of Israel, Jesus shed his blood on the cross for the sins ofthe world (John 1:29). The crucifixion of Jesus was the greatestatoning event in history. His blood, which provided the means for anew covenant, was poured out for many on the cross (Matt. 26:28). Thecross, as gruesome as it was, was the means through which Christ died“for our sins” (Gal. 1:4). Jesus freely scorned the shameof the cross so that we might be reconciled to God by his shed blood(Col. 1:20; Heb. 12:2).
Jesusalso bore the curse of God in our place when he died on the cross.The one who hangs on a tree is divinely cursed (Deut. 21:23). God’scurse is a curse upon sin, death, and fallenness. Jesus took God’scurse upon himself in order to redeem us from that curse (Gal. 3:13).
Jesusdemonstrated the humble nature of his mission and ministry by hisobedience to death, even death on the cross (Phil. 2:8). For Jesusthe cross was not simply his martyrdom, as if he simply died for aworthy cause; it was the pinnacle example of obedience and love inthe Bible. Jesus called his followers to take up a cross and followhis example of selfless sacrifice (Matt. 16:24). Jesus’ crossis a symbol of his love, obedience, and selflessness.
Mostof all, the cross reveals the unconditional love of God, who offeredhis Son as the atoning sacrifice for sin (John 3:16; 1 John4:10). The brutal cross reveals the beautiful love of Jesus, whowillingly laid down his life (1 John 3:16).
Typesof Crosses
Across is an upright wooden beam or post on which persons were eithertied or nailed as a means of torture and execution. A cross couldhave several different shapes. The earliest was not a cross at allbut rather a simple stake or pole on which persons were impaled. Thissimple stake evolved over time into more elaborate shapes with theaddition of a crossbeam that was secured to the upright stake. TheLatin cross was shaped like a t and was the type most commonly usedby the Romans. Jesus was crucified probably on a Latin cross, whichallowed for a convenient place for a sign (called a titlos in John19:19) to be placed above his head (Matt. 27:37 pars.). Another formof cross, now referred to as a St. Anthony’s cross, wasshaped like a T, with the crossbeam affixed at the top of the uprightbeam. A cross shaped like an X, having a crisscross pattern, is alsoknown as a St. Andrew’s cross. Tradition holds that theapostle Peter was crucified upside down on this type of cross. Across shaped like a +, the Greek cross, has the crossbeam in thecenter.
Crucifixionin Ancient Times
Inancient times, crucifixion was a method of execution used by manypeoples, including the Assyrians, the Phoenicians, the Babylonians,the Persians, the Medes, and the Greeks. Historically, crucifixion’sbarbaric predecessor was impalement. Victims often were beheadedfirst, and then their lifeless bodies were forced onto a large stakeor spike (Gen. 40:19; 1 Sam. 31:9–10). Impalementoriginally was more about triumph and exposure than execution (Deut.21:22–23; Josh. 8:29; 10:26; 2 Sam. 4:12; 21:9–10).But the Assyrians impaled their enemies by sticking them, stillalive, onto pointed stakes, thus utilizing impalement as a method ofexecution. The book of Esther probably reflects the practice ofimpalement in the Persian period by describing how the king’sofficials were executed (2:23; 5:14; KJV: “hanged”). Inthese verses, the Hebrew word that some English versions translate as“gallows” (’ets) actually means “tree,”and a noose for hanging was not used in Persia during this period.Impalement became a common form of execution.
Impalementas a means of execution eventually gave way to crucifixion.Crucifixion was especially prized by the Phoenicians, whose normalmethods of execution—drowning, immersion in boiling oil,impalement, stoning, and burning—were seen as too quick andeasy. Wanting their victims to suffer longer, they used crucifixion,a more severe form of execution. The Greeks also crucified victims ona stake or a cross. Alexander the Great crucified two thousandinhabitants of Tyre along the shoreline when he captured the city in332 BC.
Thereis no evidence that ancient Israel fastened people to a stake or across as a method of execution. Instead, stoning was the preferredmethod of execution in Israel and was commanded by the law (Lev.20:2; Deut. 22:24). The law did, however, permit the public displayof an offender’s body “on a tree” or a “pole”after being executed (Deut. 21:22). The same expression is used inthe book of Acts to describe Jesus’ crucifixion (5:30; 10:39;13:29). In contrast to pagan nations that would leave a corpsehanging on a cross until the flesh either rotted away or was devouredby vultures, Israel was commanded to take the body down, not lettingit remain on the tree overnight (Deut. 21:23). This explains why theJews were so adamant that Jesus’ body be taken down before theSabbath commenced at sunset (John 19:31). Being hung on a tree wasespecially abhorrent to Israel because it reflected God’s curseupon the offender (Deut. 21:23). Jesus was accursed by God as he hungon the cross, bearing the sins of the world (Gal. 3:13).
Crucifixionin New Testament Times
Notlong before the Romans took over Palestine, the Jewish rulerAlexander Jannaeus crucified about eight hundred Pharisees whoopposed him in 86 BC. This gruesome event was out of character forthe Jewish nation and was frowned upon by the Jews of the day as wellas by the later Jewish historian Josephus. But it was the Romans whoperfected crucifixion as a means of torture and execution. The Romanscalled crucifixion “slaves’ punishment” because itwas intended for the lowest members of society. It became thepreferred method of execution for political crimes such as desertion,spying, rebellion, and insurrection. Roman crucifixion was common inNT times and extended well into the fourth century AD. The emperorConstantine converted to Christianity in AD 312 and abolishedcrucifixion altogether. The cross became a symbol of Christiansacrifice instead of a barbarous method of torture and execution.
RomanCrucifixion
Crucifixionwas a barbaric method of torture and execution whereby a victim waseither nailed or tied to a wooden cross and left to die a long,agonizing death. It often was reserved for the most offensivecriminals, such as thieves (Matt. 27:38), murderers, insurrectionists(Mark 15:7), and other political rebels. Disobedient slaves commonlywere crucified. Crucifixion was so demeaning that Roman citizens wereexempt and could be crucified only by direct decree of the emperor.Crucifixion also was used as a triumphant sign in times of war asvictors demonstrated their conquests by hoisting their enemies uponcrosses for all to see. It was viewed as a public symbol of strengthand intimidation. Adding insult to injury, executioners strippedtheir victims and crucified them alongside busy roads and in publicplaces where onlookers could gaze in horror.
Criminalsoften were flogged severely before crucifixion in apseudo-compassionate effort to speed up the death process experiencedon the cross (John 19:1). The victim was stripped, tied to a post,and then brutally beaten by several Roman torturers using whips withsharp pieces of bone or metal at the ends of the lashes. Suchfloggings were said to leave the victim’s bones and entrailsexposed. The torturers did not stop until they either exhaustedthemselves or were called off by their commanding officers.
Afterthe flogging, the offender was forced to carry the crossbeam, oftenweighing seventy-five to one hundred pounds, on his or her shouldersto the crucifixion site (John 19:17). The main upright beam, standingseven to nine feet tall, remained at the site of crucifixion and wasused repeatedly. The victim was then laid down with arms stretchedout across the beam and usually tied into position. Once the victim’sarms were secured by ropes, a soldier searched for the “hollowspot” in the wrist located just above the flexion area near thecarpal bones. The metacarpal bones of the palms were too weak tosupport the weight of the body on the cross, so the wrist was astronger alternative. However, the use of ropes to support the armsmade the choice of little consequence. Either location wasacceptable. A hammer was used to drive five-inch nails through bothwrists, affixing the victim to the crossbeam. It was customary tooffer the victim a narcotic co*cktail to help ease the pain ofcrucifixion. Jesus refused this drink (Matt. 27:34; Mark 15:23).
Afterthe victim’s arms were nailed to the crossbeam, it was hoistedup and secured to the upright post. This alone was very hard on thefatigued body of the victim, who already had lost a considerableamount of blood. This quick, upward motion caused orthostatichypotension—very low blood pressure caused by a rapid verticalshift in body position. The victim’s blood pressure would dropto half of normal, while the pulse rate doubled. Victims frequentlyfainted due to the rush of blood away from the head during thisupward motion. This motion probably is the imagery behind Jesus’“lifted up” sayings (John 3:14; 8:28; 12:32). Jesus wasquite literally lifted up onto the cross.
Nextcame the nailing of the feet. The Romans had several different waysof nailing the feet to the cross. Roman soldiers were notorious fortwisting and contorting victims into odd positions while nailing themto the cross. Sometimes a victim’s legs were stretcheddownward, feet crossed, and one nail driven through both. A supportblock typically was placed behind the victim to support the weight ofthe body on the cross. A heel bone of a crucified man named“Yehohanan” (John) was discovered in an ossuary north ofJerusalem in 1968. A single nail had been driven through the side ofthe heel. Either the body was twisted so that the nail was driventhrough both heels, the right above the left, or each heel was nailedto opposite sides of the upright beam causing the victim to straddlethe cross. A piece of wood was held against the heel before the nailwas driven in, to act as a washer, preventing the foot from tearingfree. The ossuary’s inscription describes Yehohanan as “theone hanged with knees apart.” Once nailed to the cross, thevictim often suffered for several hours, even days, exposed to thehot sun as well as the insults of those passing by on the busy road(cf. Matt. 27:39; Mark 15:29; Luke 23:35; John 19:20). Extreme thirstwas brought on by massive blood loss and exposure to the elements(John 19:28).
Becausedeath could take several hours, it sometimes was hastened by acrushing blow to the legs with a club. Victims were unable to pushtheir bodies upward to gasp for air or to keep their bloodcirculating. This final blow to the legs also caused intense pain andusually was enough to throw the body into shock, with death followingsoon afterward. Jesus was already dead when the soldiers approachedto break his legs (John 19:32–33). This fulfilled what waswritten in the Scriptures: “Not one of his bones will bebroken” (John 19:36; cf. Exod. 12:46; Num. 9:12; Ps. 34:20).Instead of breaking Jesus’ legs, a soldier thrust a spear intohis side, which brought forth a sudden flow of blood and water,indicating that he was truly dead (John 19:34). This too was tofulfill Scripture: “They will look on the one they havepierced” (John 19:37; cf. Zech. 12:10). Bodies often were lefton the crosses to be eaten by scavenging birds such as vultures. TheJews demanded that the bodies of Jesus and the two thieves crucifiedwith him be taken down before the Sabbath that began that evening(John 19:31).
PhysicalDeath by Crucifixion
Deathby crucifixion resulted from a combination of factors. The mostobvious was massive blood loss. With the nails being driven throughthe extensive artery systems of the wrists and feet, the victim losta lot of blood. The severe flogging before being crucified alsoplayed a role and took its toll on the body. Blood loss also led to adepletion of oxygen supply to the vital tissues. Major organs faileddue to lack of oxygenation. Another factor leading to death wassuffocation or asphyxiation. The weight of the body hanging on thecross was too great for the tendons and muscles in the arms, so thevictims were unable to hold themselves up in order to take in deepbreaths. The victim’s upper body continued to sink lower untilthe lungs became too compressed and unable to take in large volumesof air. Victims could force themselves upward to gasp air by usingtheir legs, but this was extremely painful. Preventing the victimfrom pushing upward in order to breathe was another reason forbreaking the legs. The victim slowly suffocated for hours.
Theultimate cause of death was an eventual heart rupture due to massiveblood loss and lack of oxygenation. As the pulse raced and bloodpressure increased, the heart eventually burst due to the stress.This helps explain the reference to the “sudden flow of bloodand water” in John 19:34. In the case of heart rupture, theright side of the heart still has some blood left in it while the sacthat surrounds the heart, the pericardium, fills with water. Thesoldier’s spear pierced this sac and the heart, causing bothblood and water to flow out.
TheMeaning of Jesus’ Crucifixion
TheOT teaches that it is blood that makes atonement for sin (Lev.17:11). Just as sacrificial lambs shed their blood on the altar forthe sins of Israel, Jesus shed his blood on the cross for the sins ofthe world (John 1:29). The crucifixion of Jesus was the greatestatoning event in history. His blood, which provided the means for anew covenant, was poured out for many on the cross (Matt. 26:28). Thecross, as gruesome as it was, was the means through which Christ died“for our sins” (Gal. 1:4). Jesus freely scorned the shameof the cross so that we might be reconciled to God by his shed blood(Col. 1:20; Heb. 12:2).
Jesusalso bore the curse of God in our place when he died on the cross.The one who hangs on a tree is divinely cursed (Deut. 21:23). God’scurse is a curse upon sin, death, and fallenness. Jesus took God’scurse upon himself in order to redeem us from that curse (Gal. 3:13).
Jesusdemonstrated the humble nature of his mission and ministry by hisobedience to death, even death on the cross (Phil. 2:8). For Jesusthe cross was not simply his martyrdom, as if he simply died for aworthy cause; it was the pinnacle example of obedience and love inthe Bible. Jesus called his followers to take up a cross and followhis example of selfless sacrifice (Matt. 16:24). Jesus’ crossis a symbol of his love, obedience, and selflessness.
Mostof all, the cross reveals the unconditional love of God, who offeredhis Son as the atoning sacrifice for sin (John 3:16; 1 John4:10). The brutal cross reveals the beautiful love of Jesus, whowillingly laid down his life (1 John 3:16).
The Greek term for “disciple,” mathētēs,means “student.” Like other rabbis and religious figuresof the time, Jesus taught a group of such students (Matt. 9:14;22:16; Mark 2:16; John 1:35; 4:1). The forms of address that Jesus’disciples used for him reflect the nature of the relationship:“rabbi” (Mark 9:5), “teacher” (Mark 9:38),and “master” (Luke 5:5). In addition to receivinginstruction from Jesus, his disciples took care of his physical needs(Matt. 21:1; John 4:8), ate with him (Matt. 9:10; 26:18), performedexorcisms and healings (Matt. 10:1; Luke 10:17), baptized (John 4:2),controlled access to Jesus (Matt. 19:13; John 12:21), and traveledwith him (Luke 8:1; John 2:12). On one occasion Jesus visited thehouse of Peter and healed Peter’s mother-in-law (Matt. 8:14),which suggests that although the Gospels do not generally depict theprivate lives of Jesus or his disciples apart from their publicministry, the relationship among these men did not prevent thedisciples from maintaining their own homes, families, and, probably,occupations.
Inthe Gospels Jesus is depicted with variously sized groups ofdisciples and followers. A prominent tradition in the Gospelsindicates that there was an inner group of twelve (Matt. 10:1; 26:20;Mark 3:14; 4:10; 6:7; John 6:70), each of whom is known by name. Thisis the group most traditionally understood as “the disciples”of Jesus. As an authority, the group of twelve persisted beyond theascension of Jesus (Acts 6:2). Following the death of Judas Iscariot,Matthias was chosen to take his place among the Twelve (Acts 1:26).Other passages specify a group of seventy or seventy-two (Luke 10:1,16), and often the number of disciples is indeterminate. Severalpassages name disciples beyond the Twelve (Matt. 27:57; Luke 24:18;Acts 9:10; 9:36; 16:1; 21:16), and some later authors attempted tolist the names of the seventy by drawing names from the book of Acts,the Epistles, and other early Christian traditions (e.g., thethirteenth-century Syriac compilation The Book of the Bee). The bookof Acts often refers to any follower of Christ as “disciple,”including those in cities throughout the Roman Empire.
TheGospels tend to present Jesus as a charismatic teacher who couldattract adherents with little overt persuasion. The calling ofseveral disciples is narrated, including that of the brothers SimonPeter and Andrew, the brothers James and John the sons of Zebedee(Mark 1:16–20; John 1:40–41), Philip and Nathanael (John1:44–45), and Matthew/Levi (Mark 2:13–17 pars.). TheGospel of John presents Andrew as a former disciple of John theBaptist.
TheTwelve
Eachof the Synoptic Gospels has a list of the Twelve (Matt. 10:1–4;Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16; cf. the list of eleven inActs 1:13), and the Gospel of John mentions “the Twelve”several times without providing a list. With some slightharmonizations, it is possible to come up with a single list oftwelve disciples based on the three Synoptic lists.
(1)Allthree Synoptic Gospels agree in placing Simon Peter first in thelist. (2)His brother Andrew is second, though Mark has placedAndrew farther down the list and does not identify him as Peter’sbrother. (3)James the son of Zebedee and (4)John thebrother of James are next. Mark adds that the two were also named“Boanerges,” meaning “sons of thunder.” Theplacement of Peter, James, and John at the head of the listcorresponds with the prominence of these three disciples in the storyof Jesus’ arrest at Gethsemane, where these three were present(Matt. 26:37// Mark 14:33). Perhaps the order of Mark’slist reflects the prestige of these three disciples, with Matthew andLuke bringing Andrew to the head of the list not because of anyparticular importance but so that he is listed with his brotherPeter.
Thelists continue with (5)Philip, (6)Bartholomew, and(7)Matthew, further identified in Matt. 10:3 as a “taxcollector.” The calling of Matthew is narrated in Matt. 9:9–13and also in Mark 2:13–17; Luke 5:27–32, where Matthew iscalled “Levi.” (8)Thomas is next (Matt. 10:3 listsThomas before Matthew; in John 20:24 he is also called “Didymus”),followed by (9)James the son of Alphaeus (Mark 2:14 also callsLevi “son of Alphaeus”), so named to avoid confusion withJames the son of Zebedee. (10)Simon the Cananaean (Matt. 10:4;Mark 3:18 NRSV) or Zealot (Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13) is so designated toavoid confusion with Simon Peter. The precise meaning of the term“Cananaean” is uncertain (see Cananaean). (11)Thaddaeus(who precedes Simon the Cananaean in Matthew and Mark) probablyshould be identified with the eleventh disciple in Luke’s list,Judas the son of James. The names of Thaddaeus and Judas son of Jamesrepresent the greatest single discrepancy among the three lists, butit may be mitigated somewhat by the fact that some manuscriptsidentify “Thaddaeus” as a surname (though they give thisdisciple’s other name as “Lebbaeus,” not “Judas”).All three lists agree in listing (12)Judas Iscariot as the lastdisciple in the list, and all note that he betrayed Jesus or became atraitor. The fact that Judas Iscariot bears a second name(“Iscariot”) may suggest that there was another Judasamong the Twelve from whom it was necessary to distinguish him, as inthe case of the two Simons and the two Jameses. This observationlends some weight to the notion that Thaddaeus was also named“Judas.”
TheDisciples as Apostles
Atvarious points in his ministry Jesus sent out his disciples to preachand perform miracles, hence they are also referred to as “apostles”(i.e., emissaries). The connection between these two terms is madeclear in Luke 6:13: “When morning came, he called his disciplesto him and chose twelve of them, whom he also designated apostles.”In the NT Epistles the title “apostle” is applied toseveral individuals who were not among Jesus’ twelve disciples,most notably Paul. In sum, both “disciple” and “apostle”have narrow and broad meanings in the NT, though there is substantialcontinuity between “the Twelve” disciples or apostles ofJesus and the narrow definition of “apostle” in the earlychapters of Acts.
TheLater Careers of the Disciples
Afterhis resurrection, Jesus told his disciples (“the apostles hehad chosen” [Acts 1:2]) that they would be his witnesses “inJerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of theearth” (Acts 1:8). Stories about the subsequent careers of theTwelve exist in both the NT and other early Christian sources. Thefirst half of Acts largely focuses on the career of Simon Peter,before attention shifts to the career of Paul in the eastern RomanEmpire. Extracanonical books and local legends trace the latercareers of Jesus’ twelve disciples, placing them in Rome(Peter), Scythia (Andrew), Spain (James), Ephesus (John), Phrygia(Philip), Armenia (Bartholomew and Thaddaeus), India (Thomas),Ethiopia (Matthew), and North Africa (Simon the Cananaean). Piouslocal traditions attribute martyrdom to a number of the Twelve,though in the NT we know only of the deaths of Judas Iscariot (Matt.27:3–10; Acts 1:16–20) and James the son of Zebedee (Acts12:1–2).
A feeling of animosity, a disposition toward hostility,rejection, or negative favoritism.
Hateis as old as the conflict between Cain and Abel or as the rebellionof Satan. Many stories involve hatred and animosity between people(e.g., Gen. 37:4; 2Sam. 13:22). Beside humans hating eachother, people hate God and that which is morally upright (Exod. 20:5;Deut. 5:9; 7:10; 32:41; Pss. 68:1; 81:15; 120:6). It is correct,however, to hate sin (Pss. 97:10; 101:3; Prov. 8:13), as God does(Ps. 5:6; Prov. 6:16–19; Isa. 61:8; Rev. 2:6), though he takesno pleasure in the death of the wicked (Ezek. 18:23; 33:11). The twogreat commandments oppose the tendency to hate by calling us to loveGod wholly and love our neighbor as ourselves (Lev. 19:18; Deut. 6:5;10:12; Matt. 22:37; Mark 12:33; Luke 10:27). The reverse is alsocommanded: we should not hate our neighbor (Lev. 19:17) nor even hateour enemy, but rather do good and pray for our enemy (Exod. 23:4–5;Prov. 25:21; Matt. 5:44; Luke 6:27; cf. Deut. 10:19). Hateful actionsare not necessarily motivated by hateful feelings, as a father whodoes not give needed punishment to his son is said to treat him withhatred (Prov. 13:24).
Withregard to a hate crime, the main issue was intent—that is,whether an accident had occurred or whether a murder had beencommitted deliberately, “with malice aforethought” (Num.35:20). Hate was a criterion of intent and had to be established bymultiple witnesses for the two parties involved. Having hate did notgarner greater punishment or make it a worse crime; hatred signifiedthat it was a crime because it was intentional (Deut. 4:42; 19:4, 6,11; Josh. 20:5).
Withregard to marriage, in a polygamous marriage there was a danger ofpreferential treatment: a loved wife and a hated wife. The lawforbids reducing the care of one wife in favor of another (Exod.21:10) and protects the rights of the firstborn son even if he isborn to the hated wife (Deut. 21:15–17). Hatred may beexpressed by either party withholding conjugal relations. Thisprobably lies behind the description in Gen. 29:31 of Jacob hatingLeah (some translations say “unloved”).
Rejection,favoritism, or preference may be called “hate,” as in thecase of a nonpreferred wife in a polygamous marriage, in not choosingEsau to continue the covenant line (Mal. 1:2–3; Rom. 9:13), orin not having a greater love for Christ than anything else (Matt.6:24; Luke 14:26; John 12:25).
The incorporation or integration of multiple and diversegroups into one. God promised that all peoples would be blessed inAbraham and his descendants (Gen. 12:3; 22:18; cf. Gal. 3:8). Israel,as the recipient of God’s blessing, was to be a light to thenations (Isa. 49:6), a kingdom of priests mediating God’spresence to the surrounding peoples (Exod. 19:6; Ps. 67:1–2).The prophets anticipated a glorious day when the nations would flowinto God’s house and his word would go out from Jerusalem tothe nations (Isa. 2:1–5). In Christ, Gentiles have beenincluded in the “Israel of God” (Gal. 6:16), and Paullonged for the fullness (ESV: “full inclusion”) of theJewish people through faith (Rom. 11:12–17). Ultimately, peoplefrom every tribe, language, people, and nation will together worshipChrist forever (Rev. 5:9).
Jesusembodied the inclusive nature of the kingdom of God in his practiceof table fellowship with the socially marginalized or despised (Luke15:2). His ministry included women, Samaritans, and Gentiles (Luke8:2–3; John 4:40; 12:20). Christ commissioned his Jewishfollowers to make disciples of all nations (Matt. 28:19), infulfillment of OT expectation (Luke 24:47). In the church,differences in ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status continue,but believers are called to a profound unity amid diversity becauseof the work of Christ (Gal. 3:26–28) and the gift of the Spirit(1Cor. 12:11).
Genderinclusiveness is an important consideration for modern Bibletranslations. It concerns the question of whether to use languagethat is not gender specific instead of masculine language when thecontext calls for it (e.g., “people” rather than “men,”and “brothers and sisters” rather than “brothers”).Some versions (e.g., TNIV, NRSV, NET, NLT, REB) prefergender-inclusive language, while others (e.g., NASB, ESV, NKJV)donot.
The incorporation or integration of multiple and diversegroups into one. God promised that all peoples would be blessed inAbraham and his descendants (Gen. 12:3; 22:18; cf. Gal. 3:8). Israel,as the recipient of God’s blessing, was to be a light to thenations (Isa. 49:6), a kingdom of priests mediating God’spresence to the surrounding peoples (Exod. 19:6; Ps. 67:1–2).The prophets anticipated a glorious day when the nations would flowinto God’s house and his word would go out from Jerusalem tothe nations (Isa. 2:1–5). In Christ, Gentiles have beenincluded in the “Israel of God” (Gal. 6:16), and Paullonged for the fullness (ESV: “full inclusion”) of theJewish people through faith (Rom. 11:12–17). Ultimately, peoplefrom every tribe, language, people, and nation will together worshipChrist forever (Rev. 5:9).
Jesusembodied the inclusive nature of the kingdom of God in his practiceof table fellowship with the socially marginalized or despised (Luke15:2). His ministry included women, Samaritans, and Gentiles (Luke8:2–3; John 4:40; 12:20). Christ commissioned his Jewishfollowers to make disciples of all nations (Matt. 28:19), infulfillment of OT expectation (Luke 24:47). In the church,differences in ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status continue,but believers are called to a profound unity amid diversity becauseof the work of Christ (Gal. 3:26–28) and the gift of the Spirit(1Cor. 12:11).
Genderinclusiveness is an important consideration for modern Bibletranslations. It concerns the question of whether to use languagethat is not gender specific instead of masculine language when thecontext calls for it (e.g., “people” rather than “men,”and “brothers and sisters” rather than “brothers”).Some versions (e.g., TNIV, NRSV, NET, NLT, REB) prefergender-inclusive language, while others (e.g., NASB, ESV, NKJV)donot.
The incorporation or integration of multiple and diversegroups into one. God promised that all peoples would be blessed inAbraham and his descendants (Gen. 12:3; 22:18; cf. Gal. 3:8). Israel,as the recipient of God’s blessing, was to be a light to thenations (Isa. 49:6), a kingdom of priests mediating God’spresence to the surrounding peoples (Exod. 19:6; Ps. 67:1–2).The prophets anticipated a glorious day when the nations would flowinto God’s house and his word would go out from Jerusalem tothe nations (Isa. 2:1–5). In Christ, Gentiles have beenincluded in the “Israel of God” (Gal. 6:16), and Paullonged for the fullness (ESV: “full inclusion”) of theJewish people through faith (Rom. 11:12–17). Ultimately, peoplefrom every tribe, language, people, and nation will together worshipChrist forever (Rev. 5:9).
Jesusembodied the inclusive nature of the kingdom of God in his practiceof table fellowship with the socially marginalized or despised (Luke15:2). His ministry included women, Samaritans, and Gentiles (Luke8:2–3; John 4:40; 12:20). Christ commissioned his Jewishfollowers to make disciples of all nations (Matt. 28:19), infulfillment of OT expectation (Luke 24:47). In the church,differences in ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status continue,but believers are called to a profound unity amid diversity becauseof the work of Christ (Gal. 3:26–28) and the gift of the Spirit(1Cor. 12:11).
Genderinclusiveness is an important consideration for modern Bibletranslations. It concerns the question of whether to use languagethat is not gender specific instead of masculine language when thecontext calls for it (e.g., “people” rather than “men,”and “brothers and sisters” rather than “brothers”).Some versions (e.g., TNIV, NRSV, NET, NLT, REB) prefergender-inclusive language, while others (e.g., NASB, ESV, NKJV)donot.
Temples have always been the domain and house of the godsthroughout the ancient Near East. As the abode of the God of Israel,the Jerusalem temple served the same purpose. The temple played animportant role in the social, religious, and political life ofancient Israel. No archaeological remains of the actual templebuilding exist today; nevertheless, the temple has dominated biblicalscholarship. The Jerusalem temple was originally built by Solomon in953 BC and was destroyed by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar in 586BC. After the exile, the temple was rebuilt and then rededicated byZerubbabel in 515 BC (Ezra). Herod the Great significantly expandedand changed the temple, but it was eventually destroyed by the Romansunder the direction of Titus in AD70.
Thebiblical text refers to the temple in several ways: temple, house ofGod/Yahweh, and sanctuary/shrine. These terms all refer to thedwelling or house of God and an area of sacredness. The sources forinformation on the temple are biblical texts, Josephus, and theMishnah (tractate Middot). The most detailed accounts of theconstruction of the Solomonic temple are found in 1Kings 6–8;2Chron. 2–4. In addition to these major sections, thereare several references to building activities and repairs to thetemple throughout the OT. Another major text is Ezek. 40, but it isdebated whether this represents the actual temple or an ideal temple.There are several references in the NT that directly or indirectlyrefer to functions and specific components of the Temple Mountcomplex.
ArchaeologicalInvestigation
Thelocation of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem has been undisputed.Current scholarly opinion locates the temple on the spot of thecurrent Muslim shrine, the Dome of the Rock. Today the largerenclosed area is referred to as the harem esh-sharif (the noblesanctuary). Explorers in the nineteenth century did not attemptarchaeological research of the temple itself, although variousexplorations focused on recording visible features and conductingsoundings along the sides of the Temple Mount. Even after theunification of Jerusalem in 1967, with three major excavations in thecity, no archaeological investigation of the temple was conducted.Due to the political and religious variables associated with theMuslim holy sites, there are no foreseeable archaeologicalinvestigations. A recent renovation of the Mosque of Omar, located onthe southern end of the Temple Mount, removed truckloads of earth.Unfortunately, there was no archaeological supervision of the projectand no archaeological excavations of the site were conducted.
Inspite of the limited archaeological excavations, several popularaccounts of alternate locations of the temple have been proposed.Most of these place the temple somewhere other than the Dome of theRock, but none of these proposals has garnered scholarly support torival the current location.
FirstTemple: Temple of Solomon
Throughoutthe ancient Near East, temples served as monumental edifices thatprovided divine legitimacy for the king or dynasty. While templesshould be considered part of the religious sphere of society, theirconstruction, maintenance, and associated activities are interlinkedwith the political sphere. The construction of the temple inJerusalem is also linked to state formation by the Israelites. TheSolomonic temple ushered in a new period of religious activity amongthe ancient Israelites. Previously, Israel had worshiped at variousshrines and sanctuaries, and its central religious practice wasassociated with the tabernacle. With the establishment of themonarchy, dynastic kingship and centralized authority were created.Although the biblical text credits Solomon as the Israelite king whobuilt the temple, the project was initiated under David. David unitedthe Israelite tribes, captured Jerusalem and made it the capital ofthe kingdom, and built a royal palace. He made Jerusalem thepolitical capital but also the religious center when he brought theholy ark, the visible symbol of Yahweh’s presence, to Jerusalem(2Sam. 5–6). David intended to build Yahweh a permanentdwelling (2Sam. 7:2).
Location.Thebiblical text preserves multiple traditions and accounts of thelocation and acquisition of land for the temple. In the ancient worldthe city temple was commonly located on the acropolis (highest point)of the city. The temple is located on the highest point of a ridgewhere the OT city of Jerusalem is located (Jebusite city, later theCity of David). There are two accounts of the purchase of the land:the threshing floors of Araunah (2Sam. 24:18–25) and ofOrnan (1Chron. 21:15–30; 2Chron. 3:1 [here the NIVsupplies “Araunah,” but see, e.g., the NET, NASB, ESV]).It is possible that Araunah and Ornan were kin, but most likely theyare the same person, with Samuel and Chronicles using variant names.However, the two accounts disagree further on the amount paid for theland: fifty silver shekels (2Sam. 24:24) and six hundredshekels of gold (1Chron. 21:25). One theory explains thisdiscrepancy as arising from two separate transactions. First, Davidpurchased the threshing floor to build an altar to Yahweh, and helater purchased the whole mountain to build a temple. Later traditionassociates the hill where David built an altar with the locationwhere earlier Abraham built an altar to sacrifice Isaac (MountMoriah).
Constructionand dimensions.Solomon started to build during the fourth year of his reign(2Chron. 3:1), and construction lasted for seven years. Theplan of the temple was revealed to Solomon during a night in thesanctuary at Gibeon (2Chron. 1:7–13). The king obtainedbuilding materials, specifically cedar from Lebanon (2Chron.2:3–10), and construction and design expertise from Phoenicianartisans (1Kings 7:13–14, 45). The Solomonic templeconsisted of a tripartite plan similar to other temples inSyro-Palestine during this period. There are two accounts for theconstruction and dedication of the first temple (1Kings 6–8;2Chron. 3–7). Both accounts offer similar descriptionsbut there are some differences in measurements. Most scholars accountfor these differences by viewing the dimensions in the book ofChronicles as reflecting the temple measurements after Hezekiah’srepair and rebuilding projects.
Thebasic plan was a rectangle, 70 cubits long (120ft. 7in.)and 20 cubits wide (34ft. 5in.) on a straight axis facingeast; the height was 30 cubits (51ft. 7in.). Thesemeasurements refer to the inside dimensions (1cubit=20.67 in.). The three distinct architectural units formed threedistinct rooms where various functions were performed and alsoreflected levels of holiness. The three units were the ’ulam(“porch” or “vestibule”), the hekal (“cella”or “nave”), and the debir (the innermost sanctuary, themost holy place). In the biblical accounts the whole building iscalled the “house [bayit] of the Lord,” and the word“temple” is used for the hekal. There was a three-storystructure built around the sides and back of the temple (see below).
Theporch was 10 cubits (17ft. 2in.) by 20 cubits (34ft.5in.). The account in Kings does not provide its height; theaccount in Chronicles gives the height as 120 cubits. In itsdescription and measurements in the biblical text, the porch isconsidered separate from the temple (bayit, house). The porchcontained two pillars of bronze: yakin (“he will establish”)on the right side and bo’az (“in strength”) on theleft (see Boaz; Jakin). The pillars were bronze, 18 cubits (35 cubitsin Chronicles) in height, with elaborate double capitals. The bottomcapital was 5 cubits, round in shape, and surrounded by nets withpomegranates. Above this was another capital, 4 cubits high, shapedlike a lily.
Thehekal was 40 cubits long and 20 cubits wide and was the only partwith windows (1Kings 6:4). The debir was a cube, 20 cubits perside. The debir is also called the “holy of holies.” Thedifference in height (10 cubits shorter than the hekal )is due to the rise in the bedrock. This measurement is confirmedtoday in the interior of the Dome of the Rock.
Thewalls of the house (hekal and debir) were built of whole stonesdressed in the quarry, as “no hammer, chisel or any other irontool was heard at the temple site while it was being built”(1Kings 6:7). The roof was made of cedar wood (1Kings6:10), with crossbeams and intersecting boards. The stone walls werecovered from ground to ceiling with boards of cedar wood, and thefloor was made of cypress wood, covered with gold (1Kings6:30). The wood had carved engravings of cherubim, palm trees, andopen flowers. The hekal and the debir were separated by a partitionmade of olive wood.
Thethree-story structure surrounding the temple was constructed of cedarwood. Each story was 5 cubits. The width of the first floor was 5cubits, the middle 6 cubits, and the top 7 cubits. This structure wasentered from the right side of the temple, and the floors wereconnected by openings with ladders. This structure formed chambersand storage for the activities of the priests.
Infront of the temple was a courtyard surrounded by a wall. Inside thecourtyard was a great bronze basin (known as “the Sea”).This basin rested on the backs of twelve bronze oxen. Ten smallerbasins in groups of five were set on elaborate wheeled stands. Alarge altar also was located in this courtyard.
Inthe holy of holies stood two large cherubim of olive wood coveredwith gold. They were 10 cubits in height, with a wingspan of 10cubits. These cherubim stood over the ark of the covenant. In thehekal were the golden altar, the golden table, and ten lampstands.
History.FromSolomon to Zedekiah, the temple was used for political and religiouspower shifts. Kings of Israel raided the temple treasury to pay offinvaders, closed the temple, or placed idols in the temple in periodsof apostasy. During periods of reform they repaired and rebuilt thetemple and its furnishings.
UnderRehoboam’s reign, Shishak king of Egypt ransacked the templeand removed all its treasures (1Kings 14:25–28; 2Chron.12:9). Asa and his father, Abijah, added to the treasure of thetemple with silver, gold, and other vessels (2Chron. 15:18) butused these to pay Ben-Hadad of Syria to help him fight Baasha king ofIsrael (16:2–3). Asa’s son Jehoshaphat (2Chron. 17)ruled during a time of prosperity and reform. It was under his rulethat the court in front of the temple probably was enlarged (20:5).The sons of Athaliah broke into the temple and worshiped Baal. Duringthe reign of Amaziah the temple was plundered by Jehoash king ofIsrael (2Chron. 25). Uzziah ruled for a long period ofprosperity (787–736 BC) but attempted to burn incense on thealtar in the hekal, a ritual kept solely for the priests. A laterking, Jotham, built the Upper Gate of the house of Yahweh (2Kings15:35; 2Chron. 27:3). Jotham’s son Ahaz took the silverand gold from the temple and sent it as a present to the king ofAssyria. He moved and changed various vessels of the temple and shutit* doors (2Chron. 28:24).
Hezekiahson of Ahaz ruled during a time of prosperity and revival. Hereopened the temple doors (2Chron. 29), cleaned out the temple,and created a 500-cubit-square mount around the temple. Hezekiahconducted many building projects in Jerusalem and reforms throughoutthe land. He also “stripped off the gold with which he hadcovered the doors and doorposts of the temple of the Lord” topay a ransom to Sennacherib king of Assyria (2Kings 18:16). Dueto his building activities, most scholars attribute major changes tothe temple to Hezekiah’s reign. The differences in the templedescriptions in Kings and Chronicles probably reflect two differentperiods of history concerning the temple (e.g., Kings represents thetemple during the period of Solomon, while Chronicles represents thechanges to the temple by Hezekiah). Manasseh, Hezekiah’s son,undid the work of his father by building altars in the temple.
Thelast resurgence of the temple in the life of the people of Israel wasunder Josiah. He instigated a reform throughout the land and acleansing of the temple. Hilkiah the high priest found a copy of the“Book of the Law” (2Kings 22:8). After a reading ofthe law in the public square, a collection was taken from the peopleto be given to workers for temple repair. The Babylonians took someof the temple treasure (2Chron. 36:7) under the rule ofJehoiakim. The last two kings of Judah, Jehoiachin and Zedekiah, alsolost temple treasure to Babylon, and eventually the temple wasdestroyed during the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC (2Chron.36).
SecondTemple: Zerubbabel and the Temple of Herod the Great
Zerubbabel’stemple.Solomon’s temple was rebuilt by the Jews who returned fromexile under the decree of the Persian king Darius (Ezra 6:1–5).The temple was built under the direction of the governor Zerubbabelwith the support of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah (Ezra 6:13–18)and was dedicated in 515 BC. This would have been a poorer temple dueto the poverty of the inhabitants of Judah. During the Hasmoneanperiod (152–37 BC) a platform and a fortress were constructed.Not much is known about the temple during this period. It would begreatly eclipsed by the work of Herod the Great.
Templeof Herod the Great.Herod invested heavily in building projects throughout his kingdom.He was keen on bringing Hellenistic culture to the Jews but also onupholding traditional Jewish religious practices, especially when itcame to the temple. Just as the first temple mimicked the religiousarchitecture of the ancient Near East, the second temple reflectedthe massive sacred architecture of the classical world. John 2:20indicates that thus far it had taken forty-six years (beyond Herod’slife) to build. Herod could not alter the dimensions of the temple,but he was able to make additions to the outside, alter its outerfurnishings, and expand the compound and platform to match thegrandeur of Greco-Roman temples. Today scholars refer to all thesebuildings and the temple as the Temple Mount complex.
Herodexpanded the space of the Temple Mount by building a “box”around the mountain. This was a massive wall with varying height dueto the topography. This wall is still visible today, especially thecurrent religious site of the Western Wall. This construction allowedfor a level platform with various buildings and plazas on the top.The leveling was done by filling in the gaps and buildingsubterranean arches in low areas. One of these areas is located onthe southeast corner (the underground arched supports are erroneouslycalled “Solomon’s Stables” today). The whole areawas surrounded by a colonnaded portico (Solomon’s Colonnade[John 10:23; Acts 3:11; 5:12]). On the northwest corner was theAntonia Fortress (Acts 21:35), and the southern end of the complexcontained the Royal Stoa, a basilica-style building (four rows offorty columns) that housed the Sanhedrin and had other religious andpolitical functions (Luke 22:66).
Thiscomplex became the religious and political center of the city ofJerusalem, and Herod built many auxiliary components. Severalentrances and bridges from the Upper City were built. The publicentered the complex from the south. A southern complex consisting ofmonumental stairs (210 feet wide) and entrance and exit gates (Doubleand Triple Gates) took pedestrians from the outside up throughunderground tunnels to the top of the temple compound. These stairsbecame an area for public forums. In addition, several shops (Mark11:15–17) were built around the complex, as well as a largebathhouse for ritual cleansing. In order to facilitate the manysacrifices, Herod built a complex hydrologic system that broughtwater into the city. This was accomplished by various aqueducts andstorage pools. The Temple Mount had many cisterns and a new pool onthe northeast end of the Temple Mount complex, the Pool of Israel.Although Herod could not alter the dimensions of the temple itself,he was able to enlarge the facade, added storage chambers andauxiliary buildings, build a second story above the temple, andconstruct several courtyards and various buildings associated withthem. In keeping with the earlier tripartite level of holiness, theseadditional temple buildings and courtyards retained the same lineardegree of holiness and exclusion.
Josephuscalled Herod’s temple “a structure more noteworthy thanany under the sun” (Ant. 15.412). Herod built a new monumentalfacade in front of the existing temple and added a second story.Herod’s temple measured 100 cubits (172 ft.) in all threedimensions. It stood on top of a foundation that gave it addedheight. It had two stories, each one 45 cubits (77.5 ft.) in height.On the roof was a parapet, 3cubits in height, which containedgolden spikes, 1 cubit in height, to prevent birds from perching onthe roof’s edge. The temple was decorated with gold overlay.The opening between the ’ulam (“porch”) and thesanctuary was 20 cubits high and 10 cubits wide (34 ft. by 17 ft.).There were two sets of double folding doors. The sanctuary containedthe golden menorah, the table of the bread of the Presence, and thealtar of incense. Between the sanctuary and the holy of holies was alarge tapestry (veil) (Matt. 27:51; Mark 15:38; Luke 23:45). The holyof holies had gold plating on its walls. Around the temple werethirty-eight cells built in three stories (m.Mid. 4:3–4).All of the cells were interconnected by openings between adjoiningcells and by one in the ceiling to reach the cell above. To thenorth, between the outer wall of the temple and the cells, was aninner stairway with access to the top of the temple and the upperchamber (second story of the temple). The upper chamber allowedpriests to service the holy of holies. They would be suspended inbaskets, covered on three sides, through openings in the floor toclean the gold overlay in the holy of holies.
Thetemple courtyard was surrounded by various gates and buildings. Thesewere specific entrances and buildings that the priests used for thevarious functions of the sacrifices and offerings (Mark 13:1–2).These included the Kindling Gate, Wood Chamber, Gate of theFirstlings, Golah Chamber, Water Gate, Chamber of the Hearth, Gate ofJeconiah, Rinsing Chamber, Gate of the Offering-Women, Salt-ParvaChamber, and Gate of the Flame-Singers. In front of the temple weretwo narrow courts: the court of the priests to the west and the courtof the Israelites (men) to the east. Inside the temple court was thealtar of burnt offering. During the Second Temple period it was astationary, square-shaped altar constructed of unhewn stones.According to the Mishnah (m.Mid. 3:1), this altar was 32 cubitssquare at the base and about 10 cubits in height. A ramp 32 cubitslong, also built of unhewn stones, led the priests up to the altarfrom the south. A laver, the great bronze basin known as “theSea,” stood west of the altar between the altar and the templeporch (’ulam) for the washing of hands and feet. North of thealtar was the place of slaughtering.
Thecourt of the women, 135 cubits square, was in front of the temple tothe east. This court had four smaller courts, one at each corner.Women could enter the temple only as far as this court. It wassurrounded by a colonnade. Inside these porches (porticoes) werethirteen collection boxes for money. This is where Jesus saw the poorwidow donating two copper coins (Luke 21:1–3). The court hadfour large lampstands nearly half the height of the temple. TheMishnah states that each of the corner chambers was 40 cubits squareand roofless. The central area was exposed to the sky, with a porticoaround each courtyard—typical of Mediterranean buildings. Thechamber to the immediate right of the court’s entrance(northeast) was the chamber of the woodshed, where priests examinedlogs for impurities (e.g., parasites). To the left (southeast) wasthe chamber of the Nazirites. To the northwest was the chamber of thelepers. A leper who had been healed brought an offering and thenbathed in this chamber before coming to the priests for theperformance of rituals. In the southwest corner was the chamber ofthe house of oil. Between the court of the women and the temple courtwas the Nicanor Gate. Fifteen semicircular steps led up to this gate.It was on these steps that the Levites sang the fifteen Psalms ofAscent (Pss. 120–134).
Surroundingthe temple and the court of the women was a balustrade or railingthat served as a boundary beyond which no Gentile could enter.Outside this boundary was the court of the Gentiles (see John12:20–22; Acts 21:27–29). Archaeologists have found aninscription that forbids Gentiles, upon pain of death, to enter anyfarther. Herod’s temple was destroyed in AD 70. The TempleMount continued to be used and considered sacred, as Roman temples,Crusader churches, and Muslim shrines marked the sacredness of thelocation.
Roleof the Temple
Thetemple was the dwelling place of Yahweh. It was the domain of thereligious leaders, priests, and Levites. It also represented therelationship/covenant between God and the nation of Israel. Variouskings used the temple for their political maneuvering and attempts toshift the religious worship of the nation. The temple was the visiblepresence of God and embodied the political and religious aspirationsof the people. The temple sat on top of a sacred mountain.
Duringturbulent political times the temple was central to God’sprotection and judgment. From the Babylonian and Roman periods, twotexts spoke of a future temple. Ezekiel’s vision saw afuturistic temple measuring 500 cubits square surrounded by a massivecourt measuring 3,000 cubits square (Ezek. 40:1–47:12). Amongthe DSS, the Temple Scroll also talks about a rebuilt temple. Todaymany Christians and Jews look to a future rebuilding of the temple.
This prayer, found but not named as such in Matt. 6:9–13;Luke 11:2–5 (see also Did. 8.2, which follows the Mattheanversion), is a version of the Jewish Qaddish prayer revised aroundthe theme of the kingdom of God and is a paradigmatic model of prayergiven by Jesus to his followers.
Jesusand Prayer
Prayerwas a key element of Jewish piety and devotion to God. It was a largepart of meetings in synagogues, annual festivals, worship in thetemple, and daily recitals of the words of the law. Jesus isremembered as withdrawing into lonely and desolate places for timesof prayer (Mark 1:35; 6:46), most poignantly in the garden ofGeth-semane (Mark 14:32–42 pars.). Jesus’ time in thewilderness probably was a time of prayer and fasting as well (Mark1:12–13 pars.). Besides the Lord’s Prayer, another prayerof Jesus celebrates God’s revelation to the disciples aftertheir short itinerant mission (Matt. 11:25–26// Luke10:21).
Theevangelist Luke emphasizes Jesus at prayer more than any other Gospelwriter. Luke’s Gospel portrays Jesus as praying at his baptism(3:21), prior to his selection of the Twelve (6:12–13), priorto Peter’s confession of him as Messiah (9:18), at histransfiguration (9:28–29), prior to his teaching on the Lord’sPrayer (11:1), for Peter (22:32), and twice while on the cross(23:34, 46). Jesus also taught much about prayer, concerning how hisdisciples are or are not to pray and how to show genuine devotion inthe kingdom community without hypocrisy (Mark 11:24–25; Matt.5:44// Luke 6:28; Matt. 6:5–8; Luke 11:5–13;18:1–14; 21:36).
Inthe Fourth Gospel, Jesus’ prayers underscore the unique natureof the relationship between the Father and the Son (John 11:41–42;12:27–28). Jesus’ high priestly prayer for the disciplesconcerns their preservation and the role of the Holy Spirit in theirlives (17:1–26). A distinctive characteristic of Jesus’prayers is that God is addressed by the Aramaic word abba (“father”),and this became common in early Christian worship (Rom. 8:15; Gal.4:6).
TheLord’s Prayer: Matthew and Luke
TheLord’s Prayer takes distinct forms in Matthew and in Luke (seetable 2). The differences in the two prayers might be attributable toJesus teaching two different versions. More likely, Matthew and Lukeboth knew the prayer from a common source (written or oral), andMatthew’s version is a more liturgical elaboration of Luke’sshorter and more “original” version. Matters arecomplicated somewhat by the fact that later Christian scribes had apropensity for harmonizing the two prayers and sometimes amended themin their respective manuscripts. Both prayers agree that (1)Godis the Holy Father, (2)the kingdom is yet to come in itsfullness, (3)followers of Jesus depend on God for their dailyprovisions, (4)followers of Jesus depend on God forforgiveness, (5)which is reciprocated in the forgiveness ofothers, and include (6)the supplication that God not let themfall into the final tribulation.
Table2. The Lord’s Prayer in Matthew and Luke
Matthew6:9-13….Luke 11:2-4
OurFather in heaven,….Father,
hallowedbe your name,….hallowed be your name,
yourkingdom come,….your kingdom come.
yourwill be done, on earth as it is in heaven….
Giveus today our daily bread….Give us each day our daily bread.
Andforgive us our debts,….Forgive us our sins,
aswe also have forgiven our debtors….for we also forgiveeveryone who sins against us.
Andlead us not into temptation,….And lead us not into temptation.
Butdeliver us from the evil one….
Foryour is the kingdom and the power and the glory forever. Amen. [addedin some later manuscripts; see NIV mg.]….
TheLord’s Prayer: The Petitions
Theprayer can be broken up into a number of petitions. First is thepetition addressed to God as Father and self-sanctifier. God isinvoked as Father, and his name represents both his character as aloving father and his authority as the master over all creation. Theprayer is theocentric, and it reads literally “let your name besanctified,” which is a plea that God’s holiness willbecome more and more evident. The Lord’s Prayer is not somekind of “I want” list, but rather a burst of praiseexpressing the hope that God’s sheer goodness and Godness willbe acknowledged by all.
Thesecond petition is for God to finally establish his kingdom. The“kingdom of God” is more akin to God’s reign, rule,or government. It is referred to rarely in the OT (e.g., Dan. 2:44;Obad. 21); much more prominent is the theme of God as “king.”In many of the psalms God already is king of Israel and the nations(e.g., Pss. 93–99), and yet the prophets could look forward tothe day when Yahweh would again show himself to be king preciselythrough his deliverance of Israel, which would be the ultimateexpression of the kingly power (e.g., Isa. 52:7; Zech. 14:9). Theprayer for the coming of the kingdom of God is a prayer for God toestablish his reign or rule in its final and full manifestation onearth. Although the kingdom was partially present during Jesus’ministry by virtue of his exorcisms and healings (e.g., Mark 1:15;Luke 11:20), it still awaits its final consummation. Matthew’sversion has “on earth as it is in heaven” and mayindicate a millennial view of the kingdom as supplanting earthlykingdoms, resulting in the transformation of the present age. Thepetition does not promote escapism from the world but rather pointstoward its eventual redemption and transformation by the gloriouspower of heaven becoming a reality upon the earth.
Thirdis the petition for daily provision of physical needs. The “dailybread” petition looks to God as the provider and caregiver ofhis people. Elsewhere in the Sermon on the Mount/Plain, Jesuspreaches dependence on God as a means of escaping the worry and lureof wealth and money (Matt. 6:25–33// Luke 12:22–34).Bread was a powerful symbol for sustenance and life (e.g., Prov.22:9; Lam. 2:12; John 6:35, 48; Sir. 29:21; 34:25). The petitionassumes that God is interested in the most mundane aspects of humanexistence, and that he gives what is needed, not always what iswanted. God sustains his people in their hour of need as proof of hisfatherly care and compassion.
Fourthis the petition for divine forgiveness in coordination with mutualforgiveness among the community of Jesus’ followers. The prayerdoes not ask God to forgive persons who then in turn forgive others;rather, in reverse, the prayer implies that God forgives in the sameway that humans forgive each other (Matthew) or on the basis ofhumans forgiving each other (Luke). The role of mutual forgivenesswithin the new covenant community is spelled out clearly by Paul inColossians: “Bear with each other and forgive one another ifany of you has a grievance against someone. Forgive as the Lordforgave you” (Col. 3:13).
Fifthis the petition to be spared eschatological tribulation and themalevolence of Satan. The word peirasmos can mean “testing,”“trial,” “temptation,” or even “tribulation”or “ordeal.” The prayer could constitute a plea for helpin the face of personal trials and struggles in the believer’slife and in the journey of discipleship (e.g., 1Cor. 10:13;James 1:2), or it could denote a request to be kept from theeschatological ordeal that will precede the final and fullestablishment of the kingdom of God(e.g., Mark 14:36, 38; Rev. 3:10). Importantly, what is feared inthis prayer is not experiencing the peirasmos but rather succumbingto it—the fear of failure. In addition, the prayer asks to bedelivered from ho ponēros, “evil,” or (more likely)“the evilone” (cf. Matt. 5:39)—that is, the devil or Satan. Godtests his people to strengthen them and prove their faithfulness,while Satan tempts people to subdue and destroy them. This prayeracknowledges the fragility and helplessness of the human state in theface of human, spiritual, and cosmic evil. The prayer seeksliberation from evil in the coming reign of God’seschatological kingdom.
TheLord’s Prayer: The Theology
Thetheological framework, ethical exhortation, and social dynamicscreated or presupposed by the prayer are as follows.
First,God is the Father of the followers of Jesus. This is axiomatic in theGospels and is repeated by the Christian prayer that addresses Godthe Father as “Abba” (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6).
Second,an overarching importance is attached to the kingdom of God as thecontext in which all prayer is prayed. The tension of the prayer—thevery fact of needs and the threat of continuing perils—existsonly because God’s plan to restore Israel and renew creationhas not yet been put into full effect. God’s kingdom has brokeninto the world through the work of the Son of God and the giving ofthe Holy Spirit, and yet it still awaits a final consummation, whenGod is “all in all” (1Cor. 15:28) and finallyrepossesses the world for himself. The prayer presupposes the “now”and the “not yet” of God’s saving action andbalances prayers of triumph and lament in light of currenttemptations and the coming victory of God.
Third,in this prayer salvation not only is spiritual (understood as goingto heaven when one dies) but also involves the physical well-being ofa person and healthy relationships within the believing community.Just as God is concerned with physical human needs, so should humansbe with their fellow humans. If human beings forgive, then God alsoforgives them. Human relations are to mirror the values of heaven andthe vision of the kingdom.
Fourth,the world order currently exists in partial subjugation to evilpowers opposed to God’s rule, which is simply part of the diresituation of “this age.” The prayer presupposes anapocalyptic worldview characterized by dualism (God/Satan, good/evil,present/future, etc.), the necessity of encountering and perseveringagainst evil, and divine intervention to put the world order rightand replace it with the kingdom of God.
Fifth,discipleship involves a variety of traits and characteristics. Thisprayer depicts the disciple as trusting and as exhibiting faith inGod’s purpose and plan. The prayer presumes that disciplescling to God in dependence upon him in their day-to-day need. Theprayer assumes that disciples try to imitate God in reflectinggoodness, love, holiness, and peace in their respective communities.The prayer also admonishes endurance in the face of trials andpersistence (not repetitiveness) in the discipline of prayer.
Sixth,although the prayer does not have an explicit Christology, one can befound implicitly. It seems implied that Jesus is a mediator betweenthe Father and the disciples, and that he possesses an important rolein the final manifestation of the kingdom. It is, after all, thedisciples of Jesus who are promised a special place in the kingdomand a special relationship with the God of Israel.
Summary
TheLord’s Prayer has remained a common thread in the devotionallife of followers of Jesus for two millennia because it is simple,memorable, poignant, and yet profound. It is not the prayer of anelite few; it belongs to all who cry out to God as Father and see theway to God in Jesus Christ, the exalted Lord and Messiah of Israel.As teachings of Jesus hold immeasurable significance for the life,faith, praxis, and serviceof his followers, this prayerencapsulates a motif of Jesus’ own mission: God as king andthelove of God for his own people.
The territory linking the Balkans with the Greek Peninsula.Though its borders shifted through its history, Macedonia stood northof Thessaly and mainland Greece, east of Epirus, and west of Thrace.Its topography is dominated by mountains and coastal plains along theThermaic Gulf and northern shore of the Aegean Sea. The name“Macedonia” comes from a Greek word referring to “tallones” or “highlanders.”
Cultureand Language
Ethnically,the Macedonians were composed of various groups, including Dorians,Illyrians, and Greeks. Macedonians were distinct from but related tothe Greeks. Hesiod, an early Greek poet (c. 700 BC), describedMacedonia as a “cousin” of the Greeks. To other earlyGreek writers, the Macedonians were “barbarians.”AlexanderI (r. 498–454 BC) embraced the Greek connectionto Macedonia by claiming descent from the hero Heracles. After acourt determined his claims to be true, he was permitted toparticipate in the Olympic games, an honor reserved only for Greeks.The Macedonians and the Greeks held similar religious beliefs, asboth worshiped the twelve Olympian gods in similar ways. In fact,Mount Olympus is located in Macedonia. Macedonian artwork illustratedthese shared religious beliefs as it expressed themes from Greekmythology.
TheMacedonian language was a Greek dialect with numerous Phrygian andIllyrian loanwords and elements. To combat the divisive effect ofnumerous Greek dialects, including Macedonian, Alexander the Greatspoke and spread Koine, or common, Greek. In fact, Alexander’suse of Koine Greek was the single greatest factor for the NT beingwritten in Greek.
AlthoughMacedonia had been on the fringe of Greece geographically andculturally, the Macedonians and the Greeks shared much in the way oflanguage, culture, and religion. Especially from the time ofPhilipII (r. 359–336 BC), the Macedonians embraced Greekeducation and philosophy. Alexander the Great, a student of the Greekphilosopher Aristotle, was the product of a combined Greco-Macedonianculture. Through his conquests, Alexander spread his blendedGreco-Macedonian culture, also known as Hellenism, throughout theEast, where the populace would speak Koine Greek, worship Greek gods,mimic Greek architecture, build Greek-styled cities, educate theiryoung in gymnasiums, and reexamine the world through Greekphilosophy. Differences between Macedonians and Greeks were furthermuted by exposure to much more distinctive Egyptian and Mesopotamiancultures. In the NT, “Greek” was less a nationalitydesignation (Acts 20:2) and more of a cultural designation (John12:20; Acts 14:1). Even Jews could be “Greek.”
History
Accordingto Herodotus, around 650 BC PerdiccasI, the first in theMacedonian list of kings, established the Argead dynasty, whichlasted until Alexander the Great. During the Persian invasions (c.480 BC), the Macedonians cooperated with the Persians, but they alsosecretly provided supplies to the Greeks. However, it would bethrough the Macedonians that the Greeks would achieve vengeanceagainst the Persians. PhilipII would first unite the rivalGreek city-states at the battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC. AfterPhilip’s assassination, Alexander led one of the greatestcampaigns in history to completely conquer the Persian Empire, whichhad stretched from Egypt to India (1Macc. 1:1–7). BecauseAlexander had no heir, following his death the massive Macedonianempire dissolved into civil war among factions led by his formergenerals. Ultimately the rule of Macedonia and Greece fell toAntipater until his death in 319 BC. Years of conflict led to theestablishment of the Antigonid dynasty, which lasted until the Romaninvasion. PhilipV won the first Macedonian war (212–205BC) against Rome, but subsequent wars with Rome led to Macedoniabeing divided into four republics in 168 BC (1Macc. 8:5).Twenty years later Rome annexed Macedonia, and in 146 BC Rome madeGreece a protectorate administered from Macedonia.
DuringRome’s own civil wars, many of the battles were fought inGreece and Macedonia. For example, at the battle of Philippi in 41BC, Octavian defeated Brutus and Cassius, the assassins of JuliusCaesar. In 27 BC Octavian, later known as Augustus, turned Macedoniainto a senatorial province and separated it from Achaia. In AD 15Tiberius combined Macedonia, Achaia, and Moesia into one largeimperial province. However, in AD 44 Claudius again separatedMacedonia from Achaia and made them senatorial provinces. This wasthe political status when Paul traveled through “Macedonia andAchaia” during his missionary journeys (Acts 19:21; Rom. 15:26;1Thess. 1:7).
TheJourneys of Paul
Fromthe time that Paul received his vision of a Macedonian man callinghim to proclaim the gospel (Acts 16:9), Macedonia played asignificant role in Paul’s journeys and the early church. Heestablished three churches there and wrote three letters to them(Philippians and 1–2Thessalonians). Several of Paul’scompanions were Macedonians, including Sopater, Aristarchus,Secundus, and Jason (Acts 17:4–7; 20:4). In Paul’scorrespondence he spoke of Macedonia at least sixteen times in sixdifferent letters. Answering the Macedonian call during his secondmissionary journey, Paul arrived in Philippi, which was “aRoman colony and a leading city of that district of Macedonia”(Acts 16:12). There he led Lydia, the first known European convert,to the gospel. After casting an evil spirit out from a slave girl,Paul and Silas were imprisoned, and they led the Philippian jailerand his family to the gospel (Acts 16:16–40). Lydia and thePhilippian church generously supported Paul’s ministry and thechurch in Jerusalem (Rom. 15:26–27; 2Cor. 8:1–5;Phil. 4:15–17).
Paulthen traveled along the paved Via Egnatia to Thessalonica, where heestablished a church composed of “some” Jews and a “greatmany” Greeks and leading women (Acts 17:4). He stayed there atleast three Sabbaths before opposition drove him to Berea (17:1–9),where many examined the Scriptures and more eagerly accepted thegospel (17:11). From Berea, he left Macedonia for Athens and Corinthin Achaia. Paul later returned to Macedonia during his thirdmissionary journey (20:1–6).
The territory linking the Balkans with the Greek Peninsula.Though its borders shifted through its history, Macedonia stood northof Thessaly and mainland Greece, east of Epirus, and west of Thrace.Its topography is dominated by mountains and coastal plains along theThermaic Gulf and northern shore of the Aegean Sea. The name“Macedonia” comes from a Greek word referring to “tallones” or “highlanders.”
Cultureand Language
Ethnically,the Macedonians were composed of various groups, including Dorians,Illyrians, and Greeks. Macedonians were distinct from but related tothe Greeks. Hesiod, an early Greek poet (c. 700 BC), describedMacedonia as a “cousin” of the Greeks. To other earlyGreek writers, the Macedonians were “barbarians.”AlexanderI (r. 498–454 BC) embraced the Greek connectionto Macedonia by claiming descent from the hero Heracles. After acourt determined his claims to be true, he was permitted toparticipate in the Olympic games, an honor reserved only for Greeks.The Macedonians and the Greeks held similar religious beliefs, asboth worshiped the twelve Olympian gods in similar ways. In fact,Mount Olympus is located in Macedonia. Macedonian artwork illustratedthese shared religious beliefs as it expressed themes from Greekmythology.
TheMacedonian language was a Greek dialect with numerous Phrygian andIllyrian loanwords and elements. To combat the divisive effect ofnumerous Greek dialects, including Macedonian, Alexander the Greatspoke and spread Koine, or common, Greek. In fact, Alexander’suse of Koine Greek was the single greatest factor for the NT beingwritten in Greek.
AlthoughMacedonia had been on the fringe of Greece geographically andculturally, the Macedonians and the Greeks shared much in the way oflanguage, culture, and religion. Especially from the time ofPhilipII (r. 359–336 BC), the Macedonians embraced Greekeducation and philosophy. Alexander the Great, a student of the Greekphilosopher Aristotle, was the product of a combined Greco-Macedonianculture. Through his conquests, Alexander spread his blendedGreco-Macedonian culture, also known as Hellenism, throughout theEast, where the populace would speak Koine Greek, worship Greek gods,mimic Greek architecture, build Greek-styled cities, educate theiryoung in gymnasiums, and reexamine the world through Greekphilosophy. Differences between Macedonians and Greeks were furthermuted by exposure to much more distinctive Egyptian and Mesopotamiancultures. In the NT, “Greek” was less a nationalitydesignation (Acts 20:2) and more of a cultural designation (John12:20; Acts 14:1). Even Jews could be “Greek.”
History
Accordingto Herodotus, around 650 BC PerdiccasI, the first in theMacedonian list of kings, established the Argead dynasty, whichlasted until Alexander the Great. During the Persian invasions (c.480 BC), the Macedonians cooperated with the Persians, but they alsosecretly provided supplies to the Greeks. However, it would bethrough the Macedonians that the Greeks would achieve vengeanceagainst the Persians. PhilipII would first unite the rivalGreek city-states at the battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC. AfterPhilip’s assassination, Alexander led one of the greatestcampaigns in history to completely conquer the Persian Empire, whichhad stretched from Egypt to India (1Macc. 1:1–7). BecauseAlexander had no heir, following his death the massive Macedonianempire dissolved into civil war among factions led by his formergenerals. Ultimately the rule of Macedonia and Greece fell toAntipater until his death in 319 BC. Years of conflict led to theestablishment of the Antigonid dynasty, which lasted until the Romaninvasion. PhilipV won the first Macedonian war (212–205BC) against Rome, but subsequent wars with Rome led to Macedoniabeing divided into four republics in 168 BC (1Macc. 8:5).Twenty years later Rome annexed Macedonia, and in 146 BC Rome madeGreece a protectorate administered from Macedonia.
DuringRome’s own civil wars, many of the battles were fought inGreece and Macedonia. For example, at the battle of Philippi in 41BC, Octavian defeated Brutus and Cassius, the assassins of JuliusCaesar. In 27 BC Octavian, later known as Augustus, turned Macedoniainto a senatorial province and separated it from Achaia. In AD 15Tiberius combined Macedonia, Achaia, and Moesia into one largeimperial province. However, in AD 44 Claudius again separatedMacedonia from Achaia and made them senatorial provinces. This wasthe political status when Paul traveled through “Macedonia andAchaia” during his missionary journeys (Acts 19:21; Rom. 15:26;1Thess. 1:7).
TheJourneys of Paul
Fromthe time that Paul received his vision of a Macedonian man callinghim to proclaim the gospel (Acts 16:9), Macedonia played asignificant role in Paul’s journeys and the early church. Heestablished three churches there and wrote three letters to them(Philippians and 1–2Thessalonians). Several of Paul’scompanions were Macedonians, including Sopater, Aristarchus,Secundus, and Jason (Acts 17:4–7; 20:4). In Paul’scorrespondence he spoke of Macedonia at least sixteen times in sixdifferent letters. Answering the Macedonian call during his secondmissionary journey, Paul arrived in Philippi, which was “aRoman colony and a leading city of that district of Macedonia”(Acts 16:12). There he led Lydia, the first known European convert,to the gospel. After casting an evil spirit out from a slave girl,Paul and Silas were imprisoned, and they led the Philippian jailerand his family to the gospel (Acts 16:16–40). Lydia and thePhilippian church generously supported Paul’s ministry and thechurch in Jerusalem (Rom. 15:26–27; 2Cor. 8:1–5;Phil. 4:15–17).
Paulthen traveled along the paved Via Egnatia to Thessalonica, where heestablished a church composed of “some” Jews and a “greatmany” Greeks and leading women (Acts 17:4). He stayed there atleast three Sabbaths before opposition drove him to Berea (17:1–9),where many examined the Scriptures and more eagerly accepted thegospel (17:11). From Berea, he left Macedonia for Athens and Corinthin Achaia. Paul later returned to Macedonia during his thirdmissionary journey (20:1–6).
A distinction needs to be made between the variousoccurrences of the words “pray” and “prayer”in most translations of the Bible and the modern connotation of thesame words. In the OT, the main Hebrew words translated as “topray” and “prayer” (palal and tepillah) refer tothe act of bringing a petition or request before God. They do notnormally, if ever, refer to the other elements that we today think ofas being included in the act of praying, such as praise orthanksgiving. The same is the case in the NT, where the main Greekwords translated “topray” and “prayer” (proseuchomai and proseuchē)also specifically denote making a petition or request to God. Butother words and constructions in both Testaments are also translated“to pray” and “prayer,” and this article willdeal with the larger concept,including praise, thanksgiving, petition, and confession, as opposedto the narrower meaning of the particular Hebrew and Greek terms (seealso Praise; Thanksgiving; Worship).
OldTestament
Inthe OT there is no language or understanding comparable to modernways of talking about prayer as conversational or dialogical. Prayerdoes not involve mutuality. Prayer is something that humans offer toGod, and the situation is never reversed; God does not pray tohumans. Understanding this preserves the proper distinction betweenthe sovereign God and the praying subject. Therefore, prayers in theOT are reverential. Some OT prayers have extended introductions, suchas that found in Neh. 1:5, that seem to pile up names for God. Theseshould be seen as instances not of stiltedness or ostentation, butrather as setting up a kind of “buffer zone” inrecognition of the distance between the Creator and the creature. Inthe NT, compare the same phenomenon in Eph. 1:17.
Manyof the prayers in the OT are explicitly set in a covenantal context.God owes nothing to his creatures, but God has sworn to be faithfulto those with whom he has entered into covenant. Thus, many OTprayers specifically appeal to the covenant as a motivation for boththose praying and God’s answering (1Kings 8:23–25;Neh. 1:5–11; 9:32; Pss. 25:10–11; 44:17–26; 74:20;89:39–49). In postexilic books such as Ezra, Nehemiah, andDaniel, an important feature in the recorded prayers is the use ofprior Scripture, praying God’s words (many times covenantal)back to him (in the NT, see Acts 4:24–30). Also, the closenessengendered by the covenant relationship between God and his peoplewas unique in the ancient Near Eastern context. So Moses can marvel,“What other nation is so great as to have their gods near themthe way the Lord our God is near us whenever we pray to him?”(Deut. 4:7).
Prayermust be made from a heart that is right toward God. There is noguarantee that God will hear every prayer (Ps. 66:18; Prov. 1:28;Isa. 1:15; 59:2). For the most part, the “rightness” thatGod requires in prayer is “a broken and contrite heart”(Ps. 51:17; cf. Isa. 66:2).
Althoughseveral passages talk about prayer in the context of sacrifice (e.g.,Gen. 13:4), there is surprisingly little emphasis on prayer in thelegal texts about sacrifice in the Pentateuch, no prescriptions forthe kinds of prayer or the words that are to be said in connectionwith the sacrifices. Interestingly, however, in later, perhapspostexilic contexts, where there is no temple and therefore nosacrifice, we find texts such as Ps. 141:2, where the petitioner asksGod to accept prayer as if it were an offering of incense and theevening sacrifice (cf. Prov. 15:8; in the NT, see Rev. 5:8).
Apresupposition of prayer in the OT is that God hears prayer and mayindeed answer and effect the change being requested. Prayer is notprimarily about changing the psychological state or the heart of theone praying, but rather about God changing the circ*mstances of theone praying.
Thereis a striking honesty, some would even say brashness, evident in manyOT prayers. Jeremiah laments that God has deceived both the people(Jer. 4:10) and Jeremiah himself (20:7) and complains about God’sjustice (12:1–4). Job stands, as it were, in God’s faceand demands that the Almighty answer his questions (Job 31:35–37).The psalmist accuses God of having broken his covenant promises (Ps.89:39). While it is true that God does, to some extent, rebukeJeremiah and Job (Jer. 12:5; Job 38–42), he does not ignorethem or cast them aside. This would seem, ultimately, to encouragesuch honesty and boldness on the part of those who pray.
Literarily,accounts of prayers in narratives serve to provide characterizationsof the ones praying. The recorded prayers of people such as Abraham,Moses, Hannah, Ezra, and Nehemiah demonstrate their true piety andhumility before God. By contrast, the prayer of Jonah recorded inJon. 2, in its narrative context, betrays a certain hypocrisy on thepart of the reluctant prophet.
NewTestament
Thedepiction of prayer in the NT is largely consistent with that of theOT, but there are important developments.
Jesustells his disciples to address God as “Father” (Matt.6:9; cf. Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). Although recent scholarship hasdemonstrated that “Abba” is not the equivalent of our“daddy,” it expresses a certain intimacy that goes beyondwhat was prevalent at the time, but retains an element of reverenceas well. God is not just “Father,” but “our Fatherin heaven” (Matt. 6:9). Even Jesus addresses God as “HolyFather” (John 17:11), “Righteous Father” (John17:25), and “Father, Lord of heaven and earth” (Matt.11:25). And Paul, as mentioned earlier, uses a buffer zone, rarely inhis epistles using the word “Father” by itself, butinstead referring to “God our Father” (e.g., Rom. 1:7)and frequently using the phrase “the God and Father of our LordJesus Christ” (Rom. 15:6; 2Cor. 1:3; 11:31; Eph. 1:3; cf.Eph. 1:17; Col. 1:3). God is our Father, but still he is a Fatherbefore whom one reverently kneels (Eph. 3:14).
Prayerto God is now to be made in the name of Jesus (Matt. 18:19–20;John 14:13; 15:16; 16:23–26). While there is some debate as tothe exact nuance of this idea, it seems clear that, at the veryleast, prayers in Jesus’ name need to be ones that Jesus wouldaffirm and are in accordance with his holy character and expressedwill. It is, in essence, saying to God that the prayer being offeredis one that Jesus would approve.
Prayercan also be made to Jesus (John 14:14), and such devotion to him inthe early church is evidence of his being regarded as deity. Theinstances of this in the NT are rare, however, and generally eitherexclamatory or rhetorical (Acts 7:59; 1Cor. 16:22; Rev. 22:20).The norm would still seem to be that prayer is to be made to theFather, through Jesus’ name.
Unlikeanything prior in the OT, Jesus tells his followers to pray for theirenemies (Matt. 5:44). Jesus and his followers serve as examples (Luke23:34; Acts 7:60).
TheHoly Spirit plays a vital role in prayers. It is by him that we areable to call out, “Abba, Father” (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6).The Spirit himself intercedes for us (Rom. 8:26). Our praying is tobe done in the Spirit (Eph. 6:18; Jude 20; possibly 1Cor.14:15).
Jesusencourages fervent and even continual or repeated prayer (Luke18:1–8), but not showy or repetitive prayer (Matt. 6:5–8).
Jesusbecomes the model of prayer. He prays before important decisions(Luke 6:12–13) and in connection with significant crisis points(Matt. 14:23; 26:36–44; Luke 3:21; 9:29; John 12:27). He offersprayers that are not answered (Luke 22:41–44) and prayers thatare (Heb. 5:7). Even as he tells his disciples to always pray and notgive up (Luke 18:1 [which is also the meaning of the sometimes overlyliteralized “pray without ceasing” in 1Thess. 5:17NRSV]), so he himself wrestles in prayer (Luke 22:41–44; Heb.5:7). He has prayed for his disciples (John 17; Luke 22:32), and evennow, in heaven, he still intercedes for us (Heb. 7:25). Indeed, ourintercession before God’s throne is valid because his is (Heb.4:14–16).
A distinction needs to be made between the variousoccurrences of the words “pray” and “prayer”in most translations of the Bible and the modern connotation of thesame words. In the OT, the main Hebrew words translated as “topray” and “prayer” (palal and tepillah) refer tothe act of bringing a petition or request before God. They do notnormally, if ever, refer to the other elements that we today think ofas being included in the act of praying, such as praise orthanksgiving. The same is the case in the NT, where the main Greekwords translated “topray” and “prayer” (proseuchomai and proseuchē)also specifically denote making a petition or request to God. Butother words and constructions in both Testaments are also translated“to pray” and “prayer,” and this article willdeal with the larger concept,including praise, thanksgiving, petition, and confession, as opposedto the narrower meaning of the particular Hebrew and Greek terms (seealso Praise; Thanksgiving; Worship).
OldTestament
Inthe OT there is no language or understanding comparable to modernways of talking about prayer as conversational or dialogical. Prayerdoes not involve mutuality. Prayer is something that humans offer toGod, and the situation is never reversed; God does not pray tohumans. Understanding this preserves the proper distinction betweenthe sovereign God and the praying subject. Therefore, prayers in theOT are reverential. Some OT prayers have extended introductions, suchas that found in Neh. 1:5, that seem to pile up names for God. Theseshould be seen as instances not of stiltedness or ostentation, butrather as setting up a kind of “buffer zone” inrecognition of the distance between the Creator and the creature. Inthe NT, compare the same phenomenon in Eph. 1:17.
Manyof the prayers in the OT are explicitly set in a covenantal context.God owes nothing to his creatures, but God has sworn to be faithfulto those with whom he has entered into covenant. Thus, many OTprayers specifically appeal to the covenant as a motivation for boththose praying and God’s answering (1Kings 8:23–25;Neh. 1:5–11; 9:32; Pss. 25:10–11; 44:17–26; 74:20;89:39–49). In postexilic books such as Ezra, Nehemiah, andDaniel, an important feature in the recorded prayers is the use ofprior Scripture, praying God’s words (many times covenantal)back to him (in the NT, see Acts 4:24–30). Also, the closenessengendered by the covenant relationship between God and his peoplewas unique in the ancient Near Eastern context. So Moses can marvel,“What other nation is so great as to have their gods near themthe way the Lord our God is near us whenever we pray to him?”(Deut. 4:7).
Prayermust be made from a heart that is right toward God. There is noguarantee that God will hear every prayer (Ps. 66:18; Prov. 1:28;Isa. 1:15; 59:2). For the most part, the “rightness” thatGod requires in prayer is “a broken and contrite heart”(Ps. 51:17; cf. Isa. 66:2).
Althoughseveral passages talk about prayer in the context of sacrifice (e.g.,Gen. 13:4), there is surprisingly little emphasis on prayer in thelegal texts about sacrifice in the Pentateuch, no prescriptions forthe kinds of prayer or the words that are to be said in connectionwith the sacrifices. Interestingly, however, in later, perhapspostexilic contexts, where there is no temple and therefore nosacrifice, we find texts such as Ps. 141:2, where the petitioner asksGod to accept prayer as if it were an offering of incense and theevening sacrifice (cf. Prov. 15:8; in the NT, see Rev. 5:8).
Apresupposition of prayer in the OT is that God hears prayer and mayindeed answer and effect the change being requested. Prayer is notprimarily about changing the psychological state or the heart of theone praying, but rather about God changing the circ*mstances of theone praying.
Thereis a striking honesty, some would even say brashness, evident in manyOT prayers. Jeremiah laments that God has deceived both the people(Jer. 4:10) and Jeremiah himself (20:7) and complains about God’sjustice (12:1–4). Job stands, as it were, in God’s faceand demands that the Almighty answer his questions (Job 31:35–37).The psalmist accuses God of having broken his covenant promises (Ps.89:39). While it is true that God does, to some extent, rebukeJeremiah and Job (Jer. 12:5; Job 38–42), he does not ignorethem or cast them aside. This would seem, ultimately, to encouragesuch honesty and boldness on the part of those who pray.
Literarily,accounts of prayers in narratives serve to provide characterizationsof the ones praying. The recorded prayers of people such as Abraham,Moses, Hannah, Ezra, and Nehemiah demonstrate their true piety andhumility before God. By contrast, the prayer of Jonah recorded inJon. 2, in its narrative context, betrays a certain hypocrisy on thepart of the reluctant prophet.
NewTestament
Thedepiction of prayer in the NT is largely consistent with that of theOT, but there are important developments.
Jesustells his disciples to address God as “Father” (Matt.6:9; cf. Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). Although recent scholarship hasdemonstrated that “Abba” is not the equivalent of our“daddy,” it expresses a certain intimacy that goes beyondwhat was prevalent at the time, but retains an element of reverenceas well. God is not just “Father,” but “our Fatherin heaven” (Matt. 6:9). Even Jesus addresses God as “HolyFather” (John 17:11), “Righteous Father” (John17:25), and “Father, Lord of heaven and earth” (Matt.11:25). And Paul, as mentioned earlier, uses a buffer zone, rarely inhis epistles using the word “Father” by itself, butinstead referring to “God our Father” (e.g., Rom. 1:7)and frequently using the phrase “the God and Father of our LordJesus Christ” (Rom. 15:6; 2Cor. 1:3; 11:31; Eph. 1:3; cf.Eph. 1:17; Col. 1:3). God is our Father, but still he is a Fatherbefore whom one reverently kneels (Eph. 3:14).
Prayerto God is now to be made in the name of Jesus (Matt. 18:19–20;John 14:13; 15:16; 16:23–26). While there is some debate as tothe exact nuance of this idea, it seems clear that, at the veryleast, prayers in Jesus’ name need to be ones that Jesus wouldaffirm and are in accordance with his holy character and expressedwill. It is, in essence, saying to God that the prayer being offeredis one that Jesus would approve.
Prayercan also be made to Jesus (John 14:14), and such devotion to him inthe early church is evidence of his being regarded as deity. Theinstances of this in the NT are rare, however, and generally eitherexclamatory or rhetorical (Acts 7:59; 1Cor. 16:22; Rev. 22:20).The norm would still seem to be that prayer is to be made to theFather, through Jesus’ name.
Unlikeanything prior in the OT, Jesus tells his followers to pray for theirenemies (Matt. 5:44). Jesus and his followers serve as examples (Luke23:34; Acts 7:60).
TheHoly Spirit plays a vital role in prayers. It is by him that we areable to call out, “Abba, Father” (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6).The Spirit himself intercedes for us (Rom. 8:26). Our praying is tobe done in the Spirit (Eph. 6:18; Jude 20; possibly 1Cor.14:15).
Jesusencourages fervent and even continual or repeated prayer (Luke18:1–8), but not showy or repetitive prayer (Matt. 6:5–8).
Jesusbecomes the model of prayer. He prays before important decisions(Luke 6:12–13) and in connection with significant crisis points(Matt. 14:23; 26:36–44; Luke 3:21; 9:29; John 12:27). He offersprayers that are not answered (Luke 22:41–44) and prayers thatare (Heb. 5:7). Even as he tells his disciples to always pray and notgive up (Luke 18:1 [which is also the meaning of the sometimes overlyliteralized “pray without ceasing” in 1Thess. 5:17NRSV]), so he himself wrestles in prayer (Luke 22:41–44; Heb.5:7). He has prayed for his disciples (John 17; Luke 22:32), and evennow, in heaven, he still intercedes for us (Heb. 7:25). Indeed, ourintercession before God’s throne is valid because his is (Heb.4:14–16).
A distinction needs to be made between the variousoccurrences of the words “pray” and “prayer”in most translations of the Bible and the modern connotation of thesame words. In the OT, the main Hebrew words translated as “topray” and “prayer” (palal and tepillah) refer tothe act of bringing a petition or request before God. They do notnormally, if ever, refer to the other elements that we today think ofas being included in the act of praying, such as praise orthanksgiving. The same is the case in the NT, where the main Greekwords translated “topray” and “prayer” (proseuchomai and proseuchē)also specifically denote making a petition or request to God. Butother words and constructions in both Testaments are also translated“to pray” and “prayer,” and this article willdeal with the larger concept,including praise, thanksgiving, petition, and confession, as opposedto the narrower meaning of the particular Hebrew and Greek terms (seealso Praise; Thanksgiving; Worship).
OldTestament
Inthe OT there is no language or understanding comparable to modernways of talking about prayer as conversational or dialogical. Prayerdoes not involve mutuality. Prayer is something that humans offer toGod, and the situation is never reversed; God does not pray tohumans. Understanding this preserves the proper distinction betweenthe sovereign God and the praying subject. Therefore, prayers in theOT are reverential. Some OT prayers have extended introductions, suchas that found in Neh. 1:5, that seem to pile up names for God. Theseshould be seen as instances not of stiltedness or ostentation, butrather as setting up a kind of “buffer zone” inrecognition of the distance between the Creator and the creature. Inthe NT, compare the same phenomenon in Eph. 1:17.
Manyof the prayers in the OT are explicitly set in a covenantal context.God owes nothing to his creatures, but God has sworn to be faithfulto those with whom he has entered into covenant. Thus, many OTprayers specifically appeal to the covenant as a motivation for boththose praying and God’s answering (1Kings 8:23–25;Neh. 1:5–11; 9:32; Pss. 25:10–11; 44:17–26; 74:20;89:39–49). In postexilic books such as Ezra, Nehemiah, andDaniel, an important feature in the recorded prayers is the use ofprior Scripture, praying God’s words (many times covenantal)back to him (in the NT, see Acts 4:24–30). Also, the closenessengendered by the covenant relationship between God and his peoplewas unique in the ancient Near Eastern context. So Moses can marvel,“What other nation is so great as to have their gods near themthe way the Lord our God is near us whenever we pray to him?”(Deut. 4:7).
Prayermust be made from a heart that is right toward God. There is noguarantee that God will hear every prayer (Ps. 66:18; Prov. 1:28;Isa. 1:15; 59:2). For the most part, the “rightness” thatGod requires in prayer is “a broken and contrite heart”(Ps. 51:17; cf. Isa. 66:2).
Althoughseveral passages talk about prayer in the context of sacrifice (e.g.,Gen. 13:4), there is surprisingly little emphasis on prayer in thelegal texts about sacrifice in the Pentateuch, no prescriptions forthe kinds of prayer or the words that are to be said in connectionwith the sacrifices. Interestingly, however, in later, perhapspostexilic contexts, where there is no temple and therefore nosacrifice, we find texts such as Ps. 141:2, where the petitioner asksGod to accept prayer as if it were an offering of incense and theevening sacrifice (cf. Prov. 15:8; in the NT, see Rev. 5:8).
Apresupposition of prayer in the OT is that God hears prayer and mayindeed answer and effect the change being requested. Prayer is notprimarily about changing the psychological state or the heart of theone praying, but rather about God changing the circ*mstances of theone praying.
Thereis a striking honesty, some would even say brashness, evident in manyOT prayers. Jeremiah laments that God has deceived both the people(Jer. 4:10) and Jeremiah himself (20:7) and complains about God’sjustice (12:1–4). Job stands, as it were, in God’s faceand demands that the Almighty answer his questions (Job 31:35–37).The psalmist accuses God of having broken his covenant promises (Ps.89:39). While it is true that God does, to some extent, rebukeJeremiah and Job (Jer. 12:5; Job 38–42), he does not ignorethem or cast them aside. This would seem, ultimately, to encouragesuch honesty and boldness on the part of those who pray.
Literarily,accounts of prayers in narratives serve to provide characterizationsof the ones praying. The recorded prayers of people such as Abraham,Moses, Hannah, Ezra, and Nehemiah demonstrate their true piety andhumility before God. By contrast, the prayer of Jonah recorded inJon. 2, in its narrative context, betrays a certain hypocrisy on thepart of the reluctant prophet.
NewTestament
Thedepiction of prayer in the NT is largely consistent with that of theOT, but there are important developments.
Jesustells his disciples to address God as “Father” (Matt.6:9; cf. Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). Although recent scholarship hasdemonstrated that “Abba” is not the equivalent of our“daddy,” it expresses a certain intimacy that goes beyondwhat was prevalent at the time, but retains an element of reverenceas well. God is not just “Father,” but “our Fatherin heaven” (Matt. 6:9). Even Jesus addresses God as “HolyFather” (John 17:11), “Righteous Father” (John17:25), and “Father, Lord of heaven and earth” (Matt.11:25). And Paul, as mentioned earlier, uses a buffer zone, rarely inhis epistles using the word “Father” by itself, butinstead referring to “God our Father” (e.g., Rom. 1:7)and frequently using the phrase “the God and Father of our LordJesus Christ” (Rom. 15:6; 2Cor. 1:3; 11:31; Eph. 1:3; cf.Eph. 1:17; Col. 1:3). God is our Father, but still he is a Fatherbefore whom one reverently kneels (Eph. 3:14).
Prayerto God is now to be made in the name of Jesus (Matt. 18:19–20;John 14:13; 15:16; 16:23–26). While there is some debate as tothe exact nuance of this idea, it seems clear that, at the veryleast, prayers in Jesus’ name need to be ones that Jesus wouldaffirm and are in accordance with his holy character and expressedwill. It is, in essence, saying to God that the prayer being offeredis one that Jesus would approve.
Prayercan also be made to Jesus (John 14:14), and such devotion to him inthe early church is evidence of his being regarded as deity. Theinstances of this in the NT are rare, however, and generally eitherexclamatory or rhetorical (Acts 7:59; 1Cor. 16:22; Rev. 22:20).The norm would still seem to be that prayer is to be made to theFather, through Jesus’ name.
Unlikeanything prior in the OT, Jesus tells his followers to pray for theirenemies (Matt. 5:44). Jesus and his followers serve as examples (Luke23:34; Acts 7:60).
TheHoly Spirit plays a vital role in prayers. It is by him that we areable to call out, “Abba, Father” (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6).The Spirit himself intercedes for us (Rom. 8:26). Our praying is tobe done in the Spirit (Eph. 6:18; Jude 20; possibly 1Cor.14:15).
Jesusencourages fervent and even continual or repeated prayer (Luke18:1–8), but not showy or repetitive prayer (Matt. 6:5–8).
Jesusbecomes the model of prayer. He prays before important decisions(Luke 6:12–13) and in connection with significant crisis points(Matt. 14:23; 26:36–44; Luke 3:21; 9:29; John 12:27). He offersprayers that are not answered (Luke 22:41–44) and prayers thatare (Heb. 5:7). Even as he tells his disciples to always pray and notgive up (Luke 18:1 [which is also the meaning of the sometimes overlyliteralized “pray without ceasing” in 1Thess. 5:17NRSV]), so he himself wrestles in prayer (Luke 22:41–44; Heb.5:7). He has prayed for his disciples (John 17; Luke 22:32), and evennow, in heaven, he still intercedes for us (Heb. 7:25). Indeed, ourintercession before God’s throne is valid because his is (Heb.4:14–16).
An early, tangible reminder of the goodness of God inrescuing his people from their sins (NIV: “bronze snake”).During the wilderness wanderings, the land of Edom lay in the path ofthe Israelites. The Israelites requested permission to pass throughEdom, which the Edomites strongly denied (Num. 20:14–21).Forced to circle around Edom and head far out of their way, theIsraelites began to complain yet again (Num. 21:4–5; see alsoExod. 15:22–24; 16:1–3; 17:1–7). God responded bysending venomous snakes that killed many people (Num. 21:6). When thepeople admitted their sin and asked Moses to pray to God on theirbehalf, God commanded Moses to do a strange thing: he was to make asnake and put it on a pole. “Then when anyone was bitten by asnake and looked at the bronze snake, they lived” (21:9).
Thisseemingly insignificant and bizarre episode in Israelite historyresurfaces twice in the Bible. The good king Hezekiah destroyed thebronze serpent during his purification of the land of Judah fromidolatrous worship. The writer of Kings explains that the serpent,which had come to be called “Nehushtan,” had itselfbecome an idol, as the Israelites had been burning incense to it(2 Kings 18:4). Jesus also makes mention of the bronze serpentin his famous dialogue with Nicodemus. In speaking of hisimpending death, Jesus explains to Nicodemus that he, the Son of Man,must be lifted up from the earth, “just as Moses lifted up thesnake in the desert” (John 3:14). Those who believe in Jesuswill have eternal life because of his being lifted up—that is,crucified (see John 12:32–34). Jesus’ reference to thebronze serpent emphasizes the simplicity of salvation through Christ.Just as the Israelites needed only to look to the bronze serpent,trusting in God’s provision for their salvation from physicaldeath, so also those who are dying in their sins need only look tothe perfect sacrifice of Jesus Christ, trusting in God’sprovision for their salvation from spiritual death.
The act of yielding or consenting to the authority ofanother, voluntarily or involuntarily; personal deference,compliance, or humility toward another; to become subject to.Submission incorporates obedience, and in certain usages the termsare synonymous. However, “obedience” indicates compliancewith directions or guidance, while “submission” describesone’s subservient posture toward another. Submission within aformalized hierarchy is subordination—for example, Jesus’relationship to the Father.
Scripturepresents submission in two ways: as the translation of a number ofspecific Hebrew and Greek terms that convey an aspect of the concept,and as a general portrait of relationships—for example,patriarchs and prophets before the Lord, or demons toward Jesus.Sometimes, the presentation is negative, as in a refusal to submit.
Inthe OT, the use of the word “submission” (or itsderivatives) in the major English versions is primarily a function oftranslator preference. In fact, Gen. 16:9, the angel’sinstructions to Hagar, is the sole instance where “submit”is broadly agreed to be the best translation of the underlyingHebrew. Elsewhere, the NIV and at least one other version use formsof “submission” to interpretively translate Hebrewexpressions meaning the following: “become a slave to”(Gen. 49:15); “serve” (2Chron. 30:8); “have arelationship with” (Job 22:21); “quickly stretch outhands” (Ps. 68:31); “give over to” (Ps. 81:11); and“give the hand to” (Lam. 5:6).
Inthe NT, “submission” (along with its derivatives and,often, “to be subject to”) appears only in Luke and theepistles, and it translates forms of four different Greek roots.
1.Dogmatizōappears once: “Why ... do you submit to rules?”(Col. 2:20). It includes the aspect of obligation to something thathas been decreed.
2.Hypeikōappears once: “Obey your leaders and submit to them”(Heb. 13:17 NASB, NRSV). Here, obedience isspecifically distinguished from submission.
3.Hypotagēappears four times as “submission.” In Gal. 2:5; 1Tim.2:11; 3:4 it indicates the main understanding: subordinate posturingtoward superiors; in 2Cor. 9:13, however, it refers toobedience to a decree,in this case confession of the gospel.
4.Hypotassōis by far the most significant root. It appears almost forty times inthe NT; about half of these occurrences can be translated using aform of “submission” (or “to be subject to”).It is used to conveythe subordination of children to parents (Luke 2:51); demons to theseventy-two missionaries (Luke 10:17, 20); sinners to God’s lawor righteousness (Rom. 8:7; 10:3); people to governing authorities(Rom. 13:1, 5; Titus 3:1; 1Pet. 2:13); believers to one another(1Cor. 16:16; Eph. 5:21); wives to husbands (1Cor. 14:34;Eph. 5:22, 24; Col. 3:18; Titus 2:5; 1Pet. 3:1, 5); slaves tomasters (Titus 2:9; 1Pet. 2:18); angels, authorities, andpowers to Jesus (1Pet. 3:22); believers to God (Heb. 12:9;James 4:7); younger men to elders (1Pet. 5:5).
Afew additional uses of “submission” in some translationshave other primary meanings: “turn in for inspection”(Gal. 2:2 NASB); “reverence” (Heb. 5:7 NIV, NRSV); and“open-mindedness” (James 3:17 NIV).
Vividportraits of submission conveying the concept without invoking thespecific vocabulary include Abraham’s submission to God (Gen.12:1–4; 17:1–27; 21:4; 22:1–19); Moses at theburning bush (Exod. 3:1–4:17); Joshua toward God (Josh. 24:29);prophets toward God (1Sam. 3:10; Isa. 6:8; Hos. 1:1–3);Jesus’ submission to the Father (Matt. 26:39, 42, 44; Mark14:35–36, 39; Luke 2:49; 22:42); Paul’s submission toJesus (Rom. 1:1; Titus 1:1); believers doing the will of the Father(Matt. 12:50; 21:28–32); the prodigal son toward his father(Luke 15:18, 21); believers toward Jesus (John 12:26; 14:21, 23–24;15:10); husbands and wives toward each other (1Cor. 7:3–5;11:11); believers humble before one another (Rom. 12:10; Phil.2:3–4); and the bowing of every knee to Jesus (Phil. 2:10–13).
The act of yielding or consenting to the authority ofanother, voluntarily or involuntarily; personal deference,compliance, or humility toward another; to become subject to.Submission incorporates obedience, and in certain usages the termsare synonymous. However, “obedience” indicates compliancewith directions or guidance, while “submission” describesone’s subservient posture toward another. Submission within aformalized hierarchy is subordination—for example, Jesus’relationship to the Father.
Scripturepresents submission in two ways: as the translation of a number ofspecific Hebrew and Greek terms that convey an aspect of the concept,and as a general portrait of relationships—for example,patriarchs and prophets before the Lord, or demons toward Jesus.Sometimes, the presentation is negative, as in a refusal to submit.
Inthe OT, the use of the word “submission” (or itsderivatives) in the major English versions is primarily a function oftranslator preference. In fact, Gen. 16:9, the angel’sinstructions to Hagar, is the sole instance where “submit”is broadly agreed to be the best translation of the underlyingHebrew. Elsewhere, the NIV and at least one other version use formsof “submission” to interpretively translate Hebrewexpressions meaning the following: “become a slave to”(Gen. 49:15); “serve” (2Chron. 30:8); “have arelationship with” (Job 22:21); “quickly stretch outhands” (Ps. 68:31); “give over to” (Ps. 81:11); and“give the hand to” (Lam. 5:6).
Inthe NT, “submission” (along with its derivatives and,often, “to be subject to”) appears only in Luke and theepistles, and it translates forms of four different Greek roots.
1.Dogmatizōappears once: “Why ... do you submit to rules?”(Col. 2:20). It includes the aspect of obligation to something thathas been decreed.
2.Hypeikōappears once: “Obey your leaders and submit to them”(Heb. 13:17 NASB, NRSV). Here, obedience isspecifically distinguished from submission.
3.Hypotagēappears four times as “submission.” In Gal. 2:5; 1Tim.2:11; 3:4 it indicates the main understanding: subordinate posturingtoward superiors; in 2Cor. 9:13, however, it refers toobedience to a decree,in this case confession of the gospel.
4.Hypotassōis by far the most significant root. It appears almost forty times inthe NT; about half of these occurrences can be translated using aform of “submission” (or “to be subject to”).It is used to conveythe subordination of children to parents (Luke 2:51); demons to theseventy-two missionaries (Luke 10:17, 20); sinners to God’s lawor righteousness (Rom. 8:7; 10:3); people to governing authorities(Rom. 13:1, 5; Titus 3:1; 1Pet. 2:13); believers to one another(1Cor. 16:16; Eph. 5:21); wives to husbands (1Cor. 14:34;Eph. 5:22, 24; Col. 3:18; Titus 2:5; 1Pet. 3:1, 5); slaves tomasters (Titus 2:9; 1Pet. 2:18); angels, authorities, andpowers to Jesus (1Pet. 3:22); believers to God (Heb. 12:9;James 4:7); younger men to elders (1Pet. 5:5).
Afew additional uses of “submission” in some translationshave other primary meanings: “turn in for inspection”(Gal. 2:2 NASB); “reverence” (Heb. 5:7 NIV, NRSV); and“open-mindedness” (James 3:17 NIV).
Vividportraits of submission conveying the concept without invoking thespecific vocabulary include Abraham’s submission to God (Gen.12:1–4; 17:1–27; 21:4; 22:1–19); Moses at theburning bush (Exod. 3:1–4:17); Joshua toward God (Josh. 24:29);prophets toward God (1Sam. 3:10; Isa. 6:8; Hos. 1:1–3);Jesus’ submission to the Father (Matt. 26:39, 42, 44; Mark14:35–36, 39; Luke 2:49; 22:42); Paul’s submission toJesus (Rom. 1:1; Titus 1:1); believers doing the will of the Father(Matt. 12:50; 21:28–32); the prodigal son toward his father(Luke 15:18, 21); believers toward Jesus (John 12:26; 14:21, 23–24;15:10); husbands and wives toward each other (1Cor. 7:3–5;11:11); believers humble before one another (Rom. 12:10; Phil.2:3–4); and the bowing of every knee to Jesus (Phil. 2:10–13).
Temples have always been the domain and house of the godsthroughout the ancient Near East. As the abode of the God of Israel,the Jerusalem temple served the same purpose. The temple played animportant role in the social, religious, and political life ofancient Israel. No archaeological remains of the actual templebuilding exist today; nevertheless, the temple has dominated biblicalscholarship. The Jerusalem temple was originally built by Solomon in953 BC and was destroyed by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar in 586BC. After the exile, the temple was rebuilt and then rededicated byZerubbabel in 515 BC (Ezra). Herod the Great significantly expandedand changed the temple, but it was eventually destroyed by the Romansunder the direction of Titus in AD70.
Thebiblical text refers to the temple in several ways: temple, house ofGod/Yahweh, and sanctuary/shrine. These terms all refer to thedwelling or house of God and an area of sacredness. The sources forinformation on the temple are biblical texts, Josephus, and theMishnah (tractate Middot). The most detailed accounts of theconstruction of the Solomonic temple are found in 1Kings 6–8;2Chron. 2–4. In addition to these major sections, thereare several references to building activities and repairs to thetemple throughout the OT. Another major text is Ezek. 40, but it isdebated whether this represents the actual temple or an ideal temple.There are several references in the NT that directly or indirectlyrefer to functions and specific components of the Temple Mountcomplex.
ArchaeologicalInvestigation
Thelocation of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem has been undisputed.Current scholarly opinion locates the temple on the spot of thecurrent Muslim shrine, the Dome of the Rock. Today the largerenclosed area is referred to as the harem esh-sharif (the noblesanctuary). Explorers in the nineteenth century did not attemptarchaeological research of the temple itself, although variousexplorations focused on recording visible features and conductingsoundings along the sides of the Temple Mount. Even after theunification of Jerusalem in 1967, with three major excavations in thecity, no archaeological investigation of the temple was conducted.Due to the political and religious variables associated with theMuslim holy sites, there are no foreseeable archaeologicalinvestigations. A recent renovation of the Mosque of Omar, located onthe southern end of the Temple Mount, removed truckloads of earth.Unfortunately, there was no archaeological supervision of the projectand no archaeological excavations of the site were conducted.
Inspite of the limited archaeological excavations, several popularaccounts of alternate locations of the temple have been proposed.Most of these place the temple somewhere other than the Dome of theRock, but none of these proposals has garnered scholarly support torival the current location.
FirstTemple: Temple of Solomon
Throughoutthe ancient Near East, temples served as monumental edifices thatprovided divine legitimacy for the king or dynasty. While templesshould be considered part of the religious sphere of society, theirconstruction, maintenance, and associated activities are interlinkedwith the political sphere. The construction of the temple inJerusalem is also linked to state formation by the Israelites. TheSolomonic temple ushered in a new period of religious activity amongthe ancient Israelites. Previously, Israel had worshiped at variousshrines and sanctuaries, and its central religious practice wasassociated with the tabernacle. With the establishment of themonarchy, dynastic kingship and centralized authority were created.Although the biblical text credits Solomon as the Israelite king whobuilt the temple, the project was initiated under David. David unitedthe Israelite tribes, captured Jerusalem and made it the capital ofthe kingdom, and built a royal palace. He made Jerusalem thepolitical capital but also the religious center when he brought theholy ark, the visible symbol of Yahweh’s presence, to Jerusalem(2Sam. 5–6). David intended to build Yahweh a permanentdwelling (2Sam. 7:2).
Location.Thebiblical text preserves multiple traditions and accounts of thelocation and acquisition of land for the temple. In the ancient worldthe city temple was commonly located on the acropolis (highest point)of the city. The temple is located on the highest point of a ridgewhere the OT city of Jerusalem is located (Jebusite city, later theCity of David). There are two accounts of the purchase of the land:the threshing floors of Araunah (2Sam. 24:18–25) and ofOrnan (1Chron. 21:15–30; 2Chron. 3:1 [here the NIVsupplies “Araunah,” but see, e.g., the NET, NASB, ESV]).It is possible that Araunah and Ornan were kin, but most likely theyare the same person, with Samuel and Chronicles using variant names.However, the two accounts disagree further on the amount paid for theland: fifty silver shekels (2Sam. 24:24) and six hundredshekels of gold (1Chron. 21:25). One theory explains thisdiscrepancy as arising from two separate transactions. First, Davidpurchased the threshing floor to build an altar to Yahweh, and helater purchased the whole mountain to build a temple. Later traditionassociates the hill where David built an altar with the locationwhere earlier Abraham built an altar to sacrifice Isaac (MountMoriah).
Constructionand dimensions.Solomon started to build during the fourth year of his reign(2Chron. 3:1), and construction lasted for seven years. Theplan of the temple was revealed to Solomon during a night in thesanctuary at Gibeon (2Chron. 1:7–13). The king obtainedbuilding materials, specifically cedar from Lebanon (2Chron.2:3–10), and construction and design expertise from Phoenicianartisans (1Kings 7:13–14, 45). The Solomonic templeconsisted of a tripartite plan similar to other temples inSyro-Palestine during this period. There are two accounts for theconstruction and dedication of the first temple (1Kings 6–8;2Chron. 3–7). Both accounts offer similar descriptionsbut there are some differences in measurements. Most scholars accountfor these differences by viewing the dimensions in the book ofChronicles as reflecting the temple measurements after Hezekiah’srepair and rebuilding projects.
Thebasic plan was a rectangle, 70 cubits long (120ft. 7in.)and 20 cubits wide (34ft. 5in.) on a straight axis facingeast; the height was 30 cubits (51ft. 7in.). Thesemeasurements refer to the inside dimensions (1cubit=20.67 in.). The three distinct architectural units formed threedistinct rooms where various functions were performed and alsoreflected levels of holiness. The three units were the ’ulam(“porch” or “vestibule”), the hekal (“cella”or “nave”), and the debir (the innermost sanctuary, themost holy place). In the biblical accounts the whole building iscalled the “house [bayit] of the Lord,” and the word“temple” is used for the hekal. There was a three-storystructure built around the sides and back of the temple (see below).
Theporch was 10 cubits (17ft. 2in.) by 20 cubits (34ft.5in.). The account in Kings does not provide its height; theaccount in Chronicles gives the height as 120 cubits. In itsdescription and measurements in the biblical text, the porch isconsidered separate from the temple (bayit, house). The porchcontained two pillars of bronze: yakin (“he will establish”)on the right side and bo’az (“in strength”) on theleft (see Boaz; Jakin). The pillars were bronze, 18 cubits (35 cubitsin Chronicles) in height, with elaborate double capitals. The bottomcapital was 5 cubits, round in shape, and surrounded by nets withpomegranates. Above this was another capital, 4 cubits high, shapedlike a lily.
Thehekal was 40 cubits long and 20 cubits wide and was the only partwith windows (1Kings 6:4). The debir was a cube, 20 cubits perside. The debir is also called the “holy of holies.” Thedifference in height (10 cubits shorter than the hekal )is due to the rise in the bedrock. This measurement is confirmedtoday in the interior of the Dome of the Rock.
Thewalls of the house (hekal and debir) were built of whole stonesdressed in the quarry, as “no hammer, chisel or any other irontool was heard at the temple site while it was being built”(1Kings 6:7). The roof was made of cedar wood (1Kings6:10), with crossbeams and intersecting boards. The stone walls werecovered from ground to ceiling with boards of cedar wood, and thefloor was made of cypress wood, covered with gold (1Kings6:30). The wood had carved engravings of cherubim, palm trees, andopen flowers. The hekal and the debir were separated by a partitionmade of olive wood.
Thethree-story structure surrounding the temple was constructed of cedarwood. Each story was 5 cubits. The width of the first floor was 5cubits, the middle 6 cubits, and the top 7 cubits. This structure wasentered from the right side of the temple, and the floors wereconnected by openings with ladders. This structure formed chambersand storage for the activities of the priests.
Infront of the temple was a courtyard surrounded by a wall. Inside thecourtyard was a great bronze basin (known as “the Sea”).This basin rested on the backs of twelve bronze oxen. Ten smallerbasins in groups of five were set on elaborate wheeled stands. Alarge altar also was located in this courtyard.
Inthe holy of holies stood two large cherubim of olive wood coveredwith gold. They were 10 cubits in height, with a wingspan of 10cubits. These cherubim stood over the ark of the covenant. In thehekal were the golden altar, the golden table, and ten lampstands.
History.FromSolomon to Zedekiah, the temple was used for political and religiouspower shifts. Kings of Israel raided the temple treasury to pay offinvaders, closed the temple, or placed idols in the temple in periodsof apostasy. During periods of reform they repaired and rebuilt thetemple and its furnishings.
UnderRehoboam’s reign, Shishak king of Egypt ransacked the templeand removed all its treasures (1Kings 14:25–28; 2Chron.12:9). Asa and his father, Abijah, added to the treasure of thetemple with silver, gold, and other vessels (2Chron. 15:18) butused these to pay Ben-Hadad of Syria to help him fight Baasha king ofIsrael (16:2–3). Asa’s son Jehoshaphat (2Chron. 17)ruled during a time of prosperity and reform. It was under his rulethat the court in front of the temple probably was enlarged (20:5).The sons of Athaliah broke into the temple and worshiped Baal. Duringthe reign of Amaziah the temple was plundered by Jehoash king ofIsrael (2Chron. 25). Uzziah ruled for a long period ofprosperity (787–736 BC) but attempted to burn incense on thealtar in the hekal, a ritual kept solely for the priests. A laterking, Jotham, built the Upper Gate of the house of Yahweh (2Kings15:35; 2Chron. 27:3). Jotham’s son Ahaz took the silverand gold from the temple and sent it as a present to the king ofAssyria. He moved and changed various vessels of the temple and shutit* doors (2Chron. 28:24).
Hezekiahson of Ahaz ruled during a time of prosperity and revival. Hereopened the temple doors (2Chron. 29), cleaned out the temple,and created a 500-cubit-square mount around the temple. Hezekiahconducted many building projects in Jerusalem and reforms throughoutthe land. He also “stripped off the gold with which he hadcovered the doors and doorposts of the temple of the Lord” topay a ransom to Sennacherib king of Assyria (2Kings 18:16). Dueto his building activities, most scholars attribute major changes tothe temple to Hezekiah’s reign. The differences in the templedescriptions in Kings and Chronicles probably reflect two differentperiods of history concerning the temple (e.g., Kings represents thetemple during the period of Solomon, while Chronicles represents thechanges to the temple by Hezekiah). Manasseh, Hezekiah’s son,undid the work of his father by building altars in the temple.
Thelast resurgence of the temple in the life of the people of Israel wasunder Josiah. He instigated a reform throughout the land and acleansing of the temple. Hilkiah the high priest found a copy of the“Book of the Law” (2Kings 22:8). After a reading ofthe law in the public square, a collection was taken from the peopleto be given to workers for temple repair. The Babylonians took someof the temple treasure (2Chron. 36:7) under the rule ofJehoiakim. The last two kings of Judah, Jehoiachin and Zedekiah, alsolost temple treasure to Babylon, and eventually the temple wasdestroyed during the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC (2Chron.36).
SecondTemple: Zerubbabel and the Temple of Herod the Great
Zerubbabel’stemple.Solomon’s temple was rebuilt by the Jews who returned fromexile under the decree of the Persian king Darius (Ezra 6:1–5).The temple was built under the direction of the governor Zerubbabelwith the support of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah (Ezra 6:13–18)and was dedicated in 515 BC. This would have been a poorer temple dueto the poverty of the inhabitants of Judah. During the Hasmoneanperiod (152–37 BC) a platform and a fortress were constructed.Not much is known about the temple during this period. It would begreatly eclipsed by the work of Herod the Great.
Templeof Herod the Great.Herod invested heavily in building projects throughout his kingdom.He was keen on bringing Hellenistic culture to the Jews but also onupholding traditional Jewish religious practices, especially when itcame to the temple. Just as the first temple mimicked the religiousarchitecture of the ancient Near East, the second temple reflectedthe massive sacred architecture of the classical world. John 2:20indicates that thus far it had taken forty-six years (beyond Herod’slife) to build. Herod could not alter the dimensions of the temple,but he was able to make additions to the outside, alter its outerfurnishings, and expand the compound and platform to match thegrandeur of Greco-Roman temples. Today scholars refer to all thesebuildings and the temple as the Temple Mount complex.
Herodexpanded the space of the Temple Mount by building a “box”around the mountain. This was a massive wall with varying height dueto the topography. This wall is still visible today, especially thecurrent religious site of the Western Wall. This construction allowedfor a level platform with various buildings and plazas on the top.The leveling was done by filling in the gaps and buildingsubterranean arches in low areas. One of these areas is located onthe southeast corner (the underground arched supports are erroneouslycalled “Solomon’s Stables” today). The whole areawas surrounded by a colonnaded portico (Solomon’s Colonnade[John 10:23; Acts 3:11; 5:12]). On the northwest corner was theAntonia Fortress (Acts 21:35), and the southern end of the complexcontained the Royal Stoa, a basilica-style building (four rows offorty columns) that housed the Sanhedrin and had other religious andpolitical functions (Luke 22:66).
Thiscomplex became the religious and political center of the city ofJerusalem, and Herod built many auxiliary components. Severalentrances and bridges from the Upper City were built. The publicentered the complex from the south. A southern complex consisting ofmonumental stairs (210 feet wide) and entrance and exit gates (Doubleand Triple Gates) took pedestrians from the outside up throughunderground tunnels to the top of the temple compound. These stairsbecame an area for public forums. In addition, several shops (Mark11:15–17) were built around the complex, as well as a largebathhouse for ritual cleansing. In order to facilitate the manysacrifices, Herod built a complex hydrologic system that broughtwater into the city. This was accomplished by various aqueducts andstorage pools. The Temple Mount had many cisterns and a new pool onthe northeast end of the Temple Mount complex, the Pool of Israel.Although Herod could not alter the dimensions of the temple itself,he was able to enlarge the facade, added storage chambers andauxiliary buildings, build a second story above the temple, andconstruct several courtyards and various buildings associated withthem. In keeping with the earlier tripartite level of holiness, theseadditional temple buildings and courtyards retained the same lineardegree of holiness and exclusion.
Josephuscalled Herod’s temple “a structure more noteworthy thanany under the sun” (Ant. 15.412). Herod built a new monumentalfacade in front of the existing temple and added a second story.Herod’s temple measured 100 cubits (172 ft.) in all threedimensions. It stood on top of a foundation that gave it addedheight. It had two stories, each one 45 cubits (77.5 ft.) in height.On the roof was a parapet, 3cubits in height, which containedgolden spikes, 1 cubit in height, to prevent birds from perching onthe roof’s edge. The temple was decorated with gold overlay.The opening between the ’ulam (“porch”) and thesanctuary was 20 cubits high and 10 cubits wide (34 ft. by 17 ft.).There were two sets of double folding doors. The sanctuary containedthe golden menorah, the table of the bread of the Presence, and thealtar of incense. Between the sanctuary and the holy of holies was alarge tapestry (veil) (Matt. 27:51; Mark 15:38; Luke 23:45). The holyof holies had gold plating on its walls. Around the temple werethirty-eight cells built in three stories (m.Mid. 4:3–4).All of the cells were interconnected by openings between adjoiningcells and by one in the ceiling to reach the cell above. To thenorth, between the outer wall of the temple and the cells, was aninner stairway with access to the top of the temple and the upperchamber (second story of the temple). The upper chamber allowedpriests to service the holy of holies. They would be suspended inbaskets, covered on three sides, through openings in the floor toclean the gold overlay in the holy of holies.
Thetemple courtyard was surrounded by various gates and buildings. Thesewere specific entrances and buildings that the priests used for thevarious functions of the sacrifices and offerings (Mark 13:1–2).These included the Kindling Gate, Wood Chamber, Gate of theFirstlings, Golah Chamber, Water Gate, Chamber of the Hearth, Gate ofJeconiah, Rinsing Chamber, Gate of the Offering-Women, Salt-ParvaChamber, and Gate of the Flame-Singers. In front of the temple weretwo narrow courts: the court of the priests to the west and the courtof the Israelites (men) to the east. Inside the temple court was thealtar of burnt offering. During the Second Temple period it was astationary, square-shaped altar constructed of unhewn stones.According to the Mishnah (m.Mid. 3:1), this altar was 32 cubitssquare at the base and about 10 cubits in height. A ramp 32 cubitslong, also built of unhewn stones, led the priests up to the altarfrom the south. A laver, the great bronze basin known as “theSea,” stood west of the altar between the altar and the templeporch (’ulam) for the washing of hands and feet. North of thealtar was the place of slaughtering.
Thecourt of the women, 135 cubits square, was in front of the temple tothe east. This court had four smaller courts, one at each corner.Women could enter the temple only as far as this court. It wassurrounded by a colonnade. Inside these porches (porticoes) werethirteen collection boxes for money. This is where Jesus saw the poorwidow donating two copper coins (Luke 21:1–3). The court hadfour large lampstands nearly half the height of the temple. TheMishnah states that each of the corner chambers was 40 cubits squareand roofless. The central area was exposed to the sky, with a porticoaround each courtyard—typical of Mediterranean buildings. Thechamber to the immediate right of the court’s entrance(northeast) was the chamber of the woodshed, where priests examinedlogs for impurities (e.g., parasites). To the left (southeast) wasthe chamber of the Nazirites. To the northwest was the chamber of thelepers. A leper who had been healed brought an offering and thenbathed in this chamber before coming to the priests for theperformance of rituals. In the southwest corner was the chamber ofthe house of oil. Between the court of the women and the temple courtwas the Nicanor Gate. Fifteen semicircular steps led up to this gate.It was on these steps that the Levites sang the fifteen Psalms ofAscent (Pss. 120–134).
Surroundingthe temple and the court of the women was a balustrade or railingthat served as a boundary beyond which no Gentile could enter.Outside this boundary was the court of the Gentiles (see John12:20–22; Acts 21:27–29). Archaeologists have found aninscription that forbids Gentiles, upon pain of death, to enter anyfarther. Herod’s temple was destroyed in AD 70. The TempleMount continued to be used and considered sacred, as Roman temples,Crusader churches, and Muslim shrines marked the sacredness of thelocation.
Roleof the Temple
Thetemple was the dwelling place of Yahweh. It was the domain of thereligious leaders, priests, and Levites. It also represented therelationship/covenant between God and the nation of Israel. Variouskings used the temple for their political maneuvering and attempts toshift the religious worship of the nation. The temple was the visiblepresence of God and embodied the political and religious aspirationsof the people. The temple sat on top of a sacred mountain.
Duringturbulent political times the temple was central to God’sprotection and judgment. From the Babylonian and Roman periods, twotexts spoke of a future temple. Ezekiel’s vision saw afuturistic temple measuring 500 cubits square surrounded by a massivecourt measuring 3,000 cubits square (Ezek. 40:1–47:12). Amongthe DSS, the Temple Scroll also talks about a rebuilt temple. Todaymany Christians and Jews look to a future rebuilding of the temple.
An appearance by God. The word “theophany” is notfound in the Bible; however, by the early fourth century AD, the termhad come to be used in reference to God. Eusebius, bishop of Caesareaat that time, uses the term (Gk. theophaneia) in reference to God’sappearances to people as these are recounted in Gen. 18:1–5,25; 32:28–30; Exod. 3:4–6; Josh. 5:13–15 (Hist.eccl. 1.2.10). This meaning of “theophany,” referring tothe biblical phenomenon of God’s appearing, is the sense of theword considered here.
“Theophany”is a compound word, related to the Greek words theos(usually translated as “god” or “God”) andphainō (often translatedas “to appear”). The Bible says in many places that God“appeared” (e.g., Gen. 12:7; 17:1; 18:1; 26:2, 24; 35:9;48:3; Exod. 3:16; 4:5; Deut. 31:15). For example, Gen. 18:1 says that“the Lord appeared” to Abraham. Several other passagessay that people saw God (Gen. 32:30; Exod. 24:10; Isa. 6:1). Forexample, Isa. 6:1 says that Isaiah “saw the Lord.”“Appeared” and “see” usually reflectdifferent forms of the same Hebrew verb.
Closelyrelated to these appearances are statements describing God’spresence and glory within a cloud and at God’s tent or temple.During the exodus of Israel from Egypt, “by day the Lord wentahead of them in a pillar of cloud,” leading them (Exod.13:21). When Moses later constructs the tabernacle or tent ofmeeting, a cloud covers it, and the glory of God fills the tabernacle(40:34). God typically speaks to Moses from the tabernacle (Exod.33:7–9; Num. 1:1; 7:89).
Later,when the temple is dedicated, “the cloud filled the temple ofthe Lord” (1Kings 8:10). This cloud is associated withGod’s glory, and where God says he would dwell (8:11–12).In the book of Ezekiel, God forsakes the temple because of the sinsof Israel, so the cloud and God’s glory depart (Ezek. 10:4).Throughout the Bible, the local presence of God is regularlyindicated by the tabernacle and later by the temple, for this is theplace where all offerings are given to God, and where people comebefore God.
Inthe Bible, an appearance by God does not limit God to one place.Solomon says during the dedication of the temple that even heavencannot contain God, much less the temple that Solomon has built(1Kings 8:27). God’s omnipresence is likewise expressedby the psalmist (Ps. 139:7–8).
Goddoes not always appear in the same form in theophanies. The angel ofthe Lord appears in the fire of a burning bush, saying that he is theGod of Abraham (Exod. 3:2–6). Elsewhere, the angel of the Lordis described as a man, but then ascends to heaven in the flame of analtar (Judg. 13:3–13, 20). John describes God sitting on athrone (Rev. 4:2; 5:1). In other passages God is locally present andspeaks, yet without explicitly appearing, which might be classifiedas a theophany (Num. 22:9, 20; 23:16; Mark 1:11; 9:7; John 12:28).
Despitethese examples of theophanies, some biblical passages state thatpeople cannot see God. However, these passages may refer to practicalhuman limitations rather than any inherent characteristic of Godhimself. In Exodus, for example, God tells Moses that no one seeingGod’s face can live (33:20). However, God then says that Moses,without seeing God’s face, “will see my back”(33:23). The entire passage indicates that God can be seen morefully, but only with fatal results. Several NT passages similarlyindicate that God cannot be fully seen (John1:18; 4:24; 1Tim.1:17; 6:15–16; Heb. 11:27).
Justas God dwelled within the tabernacle, at times showing his glory, theNT says that the Word of God was made to dwell in flesh (incarnate)as Jesus Christ and so revealed God’s glory (John1:14).This Word of God is the same word that created all things in Gen. 1and so is genuinely God (John1:1–3).
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1. Are You a Philosopher?
Illustration
Maxie Dunnam
Two men went up in a hot-air balloon one May morning. Suddenly they were enveloped by clouds and lost track of where they were. They drifted for what seemed like hours. Finally the cloud parted, and they spotted a man below them on the ground.
"Where are we?" one of the passengers hollered down. The man on the ground looked around, looked up at the balloon, looked around some more and then yelled back, "You're in a balloon."
The two balloonists looked at one another and then one of them yelled down again, "Are you a philosopher?"
"Yes," the man hollered up from below.
The other balloonist said, "How did you know he was a philosopher?" His friend replied, "No one else could give an answer so quickly that's so logical and yet tells you so little about where you are and where you want to be!" ("On Being Religious", Donald J. Shelby, May 27, 1984).
I don't want to be hard on philosophers. But if that story has any hint of truth, Jesus was not a philosopher. He did deal in paradox which is a favorite tool of philosophers, in seeking truth. Yet, he had a way of using the simplest examples from daily life to make plain the truth of his paradoxes. If you're going to find your life, you're going to have to lose it, he said. "It is only in giving that you receive." "If you want to be first, you must become last." "If you're going to be master, you must become a servant." And all of those paradoxes are wrapped in one: We must die if we want to live.
2. What Weather for the Seed?
Illustration
Deborah A. Koontz
Some of you remember back to the 1940's and 1950's. As World War II ended, America went through a period of time which many remember as ‘glory days' for the church. Everywhere new churches were being built, others added on to. Church attendance soared, all across the land and American Christians enjoyed an unprecedented season of religious vitality. Those who chronicle such times in public life, say that as America moved beyond the aftermath of war, some of the so called ‘foxhole' conversions wore off…when the crisis was over and the world returned to normal, America again lost her religious vitality. While I think that America's trends in religious vitality or decline have many more complex factors than that……I do wonder is it true that those who turn to God in crisis tend to forget God when the sun shines bright and the weather is fair?
3. Nothing Fills the Vacuum
Illustration
Billy D. Strayhorn
In 1992, the Washington Redskins won the Super Bowl with an explosive victory over the Buffalo Bills. Seventy five thousand people gathered on the mall between the Capitol and the Washington Monument to cheer their team and Coach. Four days later, Chuck Colson called the Redskins' office to see if any football players could attend a rally at a prison the next day. Many of the players had given their life to Christ. Joe Gibbs the head coach answered the phone and told Colson that all the players had left the city for a well-deserved rest. With his characteristic humility, Joe Gibbs asked Colson, "Will I do?"
Colson immediately accepted the offer by the coach of the championship Washington Redskins. Five days after winning the Super Bowl, Joe Gibbs could have opened any door in Washington DC but he was willing to walk behind the locked steel doors of the penitentiary for the District of Columbia to speak to men about his faith in Christ.
Joe Gibbs stood up to speak to the cheers, whistles and applause of 500 prisoners five days after he had won the most prestigious event in pro sports. He told those men:
"A lot of people in the world would probably look at me and say: Man, if I could just coach in the Super Bowl, I'd be happy and fulfilled... But I'm here to tell you, it takes something else in your life besides money, position, football, power, and fame. The vacuum in each of our lives can only be filled through a personal relationship with our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. Otherwise, I'm telling you, we'll spend the rest of our lives in a meaningless existence. I've seen it in football players' eyes, and I've seen it in men who are on their deathbed. There's nothing else that will fill the vacuum."
4. We Are Dying All the Time
Illustration
Todd Weir
The truth is parts of us are dying all the time.You probably just lost half a million or so cells just reading this sentence.We all lose about 100,000 cells per second.Fortunately, just as many cells are being reproduced in a healthy body.Healthy bodies have this constant cycle of dying cells and rebirth of new ones.Some scientists say that we are regenerated every seven years, which is an enormous relief to me.Apparently, cells that don't die off in the normal cycle are a real problem.These cells are related to diseases like cancer and become problematic because they get in the way and block healthy development of the body.
This is true in the spiritual and emotional life as well."Those who love their life will lose it, but those who love their lives for my sake will save it."(Luke's words are better here because there is so much more at stake than heaven in these words.)Our failure to let go and let some things die is a primary spiritual disease, for new life can't come without some death.The failure to forgive leads to death of relationship while anger and bitterness ravage the spirit like a cancer.Holding on to regrets strangles hope before it can lift us to new life.Trying to control events and other people leads to frustration, excessive stress, and exhaustion.Forgiveness and letting go of control are spiritual exercises in the art of dying so that new life may abound.
5. God Will See You Through
Illustration
George Antonakos
I like the story of an unusual account of how the news of the Battle of Waterloo reached England. The report from the battle ground back in those days was first carried by sailing ship to the southern coast and then by signal flags to London. And when the report was received at Winchester, the flags on the cathedral began to spell out the message, "Wellington defeated." And then before the message could be completed, a heavy fog rolled in and with that heavy fog the gloom of a nation filled the hearts of the people. But then, when the mist began to lift, it became evident that the signals of the Winchester Cathedral had really spelled out this triumphant message. "Wellington defeated the enemy!"
Too often we allow the future to be colored by what we understand at the moment and it keeps us from moving forward. Trust God in the midst of transition and conflict. Let go of resistance to change. Let go of panic, release yourself again into His hands. God is for you and God will see you through. Trust in him.
6. What Have You Done for Me?
Illustration
George Bass
When Count Nicholas Zinzendorf was a young man, he had an experience in an art gallery that changed his life forever. He was born an aristocrat and had always known wealth and luxury, and he was an extremely gifted individual. Zinzendorf had been reared and trained for a diplomatic career in the Court at Dresden. Beyond all of this, it has been said of him that he was a child of God. One day, on a trip to Paris, he stopped for a rest in Dusseldorf; during his stay in the city, he visited the art gallery. There he caught sight of Domenico Feti's painting of the crucified Jesus that he calls "Ecce hom*o." The artist had written two short lines in Latin beneath the painting:
Hoc feci pro te:
Quid facid pro me?
This is what I did for you:
what have you done for me?
As the story goes, when his eyes met the eyes of the thorn-crowned Savior, he was filled with a sense of shame. He could not answer that question in a manner which would satisfy his own conscience. He stayed there for hours, looking at the painting of the Christ on the cross until the light failed. And when the time arrived for the gallery to be closed, he was still staring at the face of Christ, trying in vain to find an answer to the question of what he had done for Christ. He left the gallery at nightfall, but a new day was dawning for him. From that day on, he devoted his heart and soul, his life and his wealth - all that he had - to Christ, declaring, "I have but one passion; it is Jesus, Jesus only."The sight of the crucified One "high and lifted up" on the Tree made a sudden and permanent change in his life, and the resurrection bore fruit then and there in his heart and soul.
Historical Note:Nikolaus Ludwig, Reichsgraf von Zinzendorf und Pottendorf (26 May 1700 – 9 May 1760) was a German religious and social reformer, bishop of the Moravian Church, founder of the Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine, Christian mission pioneer and a major figure of 18th century Protestantism.
7. The Mercy of God
Illustration
Paul Nuechterlein
Wangerin has a wonderful story, called "Matthew, Seven, Eight, and Nine" about how he tried to stop his son Matthew from stealing comic books. He tried various uses of the law over several years and continued to fail. Finally, he resorted to something he rarely used: a spanking. He did it deliberately, almost ritualistically, and he was so upset when he finished that he left the room and wept. After pulling himself back together, he went in to Matthew and hugged him. A number of years later, Matthew and his mother were doing some general reminiscing, and Matthew happened to bring up the time when he kept stealing comic books. "And you know why I finally stopped?" he asked. "Sure," she said, "Because Dad finally spanked you." "No!" replied Matthew, "No, because Dad cried." Wangerin concludes with these words:
"Hereafter, let every accuser of my son reckon with the mercy of God, and fall into a heap, and fail. For love accomplished what the law could not, and tears more powerful than Sinai. Even the Prince of Accusers shall bring no charge against my son that the Final Judge shall not dismiss. Satan, you are defeated! My God has loved my Matthew."
8. Burnt at the Stake and Fired in Their Hearts
Illustration
Stephen Sizer
When Joan of Arc knew that she had been betrayed and was to be burnt at the stake by the leaders of her own people, as George Bernard Shaw has it in his play, she turns to them and says, "I will go out to the common people, and let the love in their eyes comfort me for the hate in yours. You will be glad to see me burnt; but if I go through the fire I shall go through it to their hearts for ever and ever."
What was the passion of Jesus? You are the passion of Jesus. Even if you were the only person in the whole world he would still have died for you. He would rather go to hell for you than to heaven without you.
9. He Didn't Say
Illustration
Staff
You know the world is a better place because Michelangelo didn't say, 'I don't do ceilings.'" That's an important aspect of disciple, being willing to do the unexpected. It's also part of being aservant.To follow Jesus is to serve.The world is a better place because a German monk named Martin Luther didn't say, "I don't do doors."
The world is a better place, because an Oxford don named John Wesley didn't say, "I don't do fields."
Go from the beginning of the Bible to the end, and you will see over and over again the story of men and women who had servant hearts, minds and spirits. And the world is a better place, because:
- Moses didn't say, "I don't do rivers."
- Noah didn't say, "I don't do arks."
- Jeremiah didn't say, "I don't do weeping."
- Amos didn't say, "I don't do speeches."
- Rahab didn't say, "I don't do carpets."
- Ruth didn't say, "I don't do mothers-in-law."
- David didn't say, "I don't do giants."
- Mary didn't say, "I don't do virgin births."
- Mary Magdalene didn't say, "I don't do feet."
- John didn't say, "I don't do deserts."
- Peter didn't say, "I don't do Gentiles."
- Paul didn't say, "I don't do letters."
- Jesus didn't say, "I don't do crosses."
10. It's A 12 Volt Volt System
Illustration
Philip W. McLarty
In the old days – I'm talking about the 30s, 40s and 50s here – cars came equipped with a six-volt electrical system. That's all they needed. The engines were small – a hundred horsepower, or so – and they had few accessories – a starter (you had to crank the old Model T by hand), windshield wipers, a cigarette lighter and, if you were in tall cotton, an AM radio.
As cars got bigger and more powerful and loaded with all sorts of accessories – including an air conditioner – the old six-volt system couldn't handle the load. So, GM, Ford and Chrysler switched over to a twelve-volt system. The others followed suit. Twelve volts gave – well, twice as much power as six volts, and it proved to be the ticket. Even with the big SUVs today, our cars and trucks run on a twelve-volt system.
So, that's your automotive lesson for today. The reason I mention it is because, years ago, one of my best friends, frustrated with his wife's unwillingness to embrace new technology, railed out at her and said, "Pat, you're just a six-volt battery in a twelve-volt world."
That accusation has stayed with me through the years. When something new is required do I remain in theold world?AmIa six-volt battery in a twelve-volt world?Areyou?
11. Preparing the Soil for Unexpected Good
Illustration
Charles Hoffacker
The movie series based onThe Lord of the Ringsbrought to new prominence the author of the books on which it is based, J. R. R. Tolkien. Tolkien was many things: a university professor, a medieval scholar, a writer of fantasy, and a Christian. During the First World War, young Tolkien served in the trenches with the British army, and that experience is said to have had a major impact on his fiction. During World War Two, while Britain struggled against the Axis powers, Tolkien, no longer young, wrote these words to his son Christopher:
"I sometimes feel appalled at the thought of the sum total of human misery all over the world at the present moment: the millions parted, fretting, wasting in unprofitable days quite apart from torture, pain, death, bereavement, injustice. If anguish were visible, almost the whole of this benighted planet would be enveloped in a dense dark vapor, shrouded from the amazed vision of the heavens! And the products of it all will be mainly evil historically considered. But the historic vision is, of course, not the only one. All things and all deeds have a value in themselves, apart from their 'causes' and 'effects.' No man can estimate what is really happening in the light of eternity. All we do know, and that to a large extent by direct experience, is that evil labors with vast power and perpetual success in vain: preparing the soil for unexpected good to spout in."[I have substituted "in the light of eternity' for Tolkien's Latin phrasesub species aeternitatis.]
Tolkien describes the powerful, successful work of evil as amounting to a preparation of soil, a preparation of soil where unexpected good will sprout.Tolkien talks about soil.Jesus talks about seed.From a solitary seed, Jesus tells us, much fruit will come forth.Unexpected good will sprout.
12. When a Grain of Wheat Falls - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
Years ago, when the Betty Crocker Company first began selling their cake mixes, they offered a product which only needed water. All you had to do was add water to the mix which came in the box, and you would get a perfect, delicious cake every time.
It bombed. No one bought it and the company couldn't understand why, so they commissioned a study which brought back a surprising answer. It seemed that people weren't buying the cake mix because it was too easy. They didn't want to be totally excluded from the work of preparing a cake; they wanted to feel that they were contributing something to it. So, Betty Crocker changed the formula and required the customer to add an egg in addition to water. Immediately, the new cake mix was a huge success. Unfortunately, many people make the same mistake when it comes to "packaging" or presenting the Christian religion. They try to make the call of Jesus Christ as easy as possible because they're afraid people won't "buy it" if it seems too hard.
Jesus said, unless a grain of wheat falls to the ground and dies, it remains only a single seed. But if it dies it bears much fruit. Jesus then explained what he meant. He said, "The man who loves his life will lose it, while the man who hates his life in this world will keep it." It's true in life isn't it? If we are going to get anything out of it we have to invest ourselves in it. Do you remember the second to last album by the Beatles? It was called "Abbey Road" and for my money it was their best. The last song is a little musical reprise called "The End." It's the last lyrical statement the Beatles make on the album. And it went, "And in the end the love you take is equal to the love you make."
The truth of this is written in creation. It is evident for everyone to see. It even is found in something as small as grain of wheat, a seed. Jesus said,
- First, when a grain of wheat falls it dies.
- Second, when a grain of wheat falls it bears much fruit.
- Finally, Christ is the grain of wheat that dies and bears much fruit.
13. Wesley's Rule of Conduct
Illustration
Brett Blair
John Wesley wrote to his people called Methodist the following Rule of Conduct:
Do all the good you can,
By all the means you can,
In all the ways you can,
In all the places you can,
At all the times you can,
To all the people you can,
As long as ever you can.
This is the meaning of the Passion. The crucifixion of Jesus is God's conduct; it is the rule for our lives as long as we shall live.
14. No Time Left
Illustration
Brett Blair
A man had been driving all night and by morning was still far from his destination. He decided to stop at the next city he came to, and park somewhere where it was quiet so he could get an hour or two of sleep. As luck would have it, the quiet place he chose happened to be on one of the city's major jogging routes. No sooner had he settled back for a snooze when there came a knock on his window. He looked out and saw a jogger running in place. "Yes?" he said. "Excuse me, sir," the jogger, said, "do you have the time?" The man looked at the car clock and answered, "8:15." The jogger said thanks and left. The man settled back again, and was just dozing off when there was another knock on the window and another jogger.
"Excuse me, sir, do you have the time?" asked the jogger. "8:25!" the man replied. The jogger said thanks and left. Now the man could see other joggers passing by and he knew it was only a matter of time before another one disturbed him. To avoid that, he got out a pen and paper and put a sign on his window saying, "I do not know the time!" Once again he settled back to sleep. He was just dozing off when there was another knock on the window. "Sir, sir?" said a jogger, seeking to be helpful' "it's 8:45!"
It is time, Jesus said, for the Son of man to be glorified. The hour has come. It was that moment when the last sand falls from the hourglass. No time left for the development of new disciples. No time left for miracles to convince the people. No time left for debates with the religious leaders. No time left, the passion has begun.
15. Greeks Seek Wisdom Not A Savior
Illustration
Brett Blair
There seems to be little connection between the Greek's request and Jesus' response until you begin to speculate about why this leap in logic. Something appears to be missing. Why does Jesus seemingly ignore the Greeks request for an audience with him?
Two possible reasons are put forth here. 1. Jesus knows that the Greeks "Seek Wisdom" and are only interested in debate and dialogue on theological philosophical issues of the day. Even if they are God Fearers they are perhaps noncommittal. Jesus draws a line in the sand now that this is Passion Week and, in effect says, the time for debating is over! Those who would be my disciples must lose their life and hate their life in this world in order to save it. Whoever serves me must follow me wherever I may go (verses 25- 26). Dialogue and casual consideration is not enough at this juncture in the drama. 2. Jesus knows that these are political operatives. He has just entered Jerusalem on the donkey and been given a coronation reception which was typically reserved for Kings. These Greeks want to know exactly who this person is and what his political aspirations are so they can report back to King Herod or even Caesar himself. Jesus knows their intent and so ignores their request.
Either way the attempt here, on the part of the Greeks, is to discern who this man is. What are his aspirations and desires? Who does he see himself as and what are we going to do with him? These questions are still being asked today and the major religions of the world all have their various answers.
16. Did You Hear That?
Illustration
King Duncan
There is a time-honored story about an old farmer who was persuaded by his nephew to visit the big city. The young man proudly took the farmer on a tour of the large metropolis.
At one point as they walked down the street the old man suddenly stopped and asked, "Did you hear that?"
The young man looked at the milling pedestrians and the traffic and replied, "Hear what?"
"A cricket," the old man said as he walked toward a little tuft of grass growing out of a crack next to a tall building. Sure enough, there tucked in the crack was a cricket.
The young man was amazed. "How could you pick up the sound of a cricket in all this noise?" he asked.
The old farmer didn't say a word and just reached into his pocket, pulled out a couple of coins and dropped them on the sidewalk. Immediately a number of people began to reach for their pockets or look down at the sidewalk.
The old man observed, "We hear what our ears are trained to hear."
17. Blah, Blah, Blah, Love
Illustration
King Duncan
Dr. James B. Lemler was preaching one time about the Trinity. He told about a couple of parents who had gone home from his church and during Sunday lunch were talking about his sermon. In the midst of their conversation, their second-grade daughter sitting at the table chimed in. "Oh, Father Lemler's sermons, they're always the same," she said, "You know . . . blah, blah, blah, . . . love . . . blah, blah, blah . . . love."
Dr. Lemler said he was amused and thought to himself, "Hey, this little girl really got it . . . the message, the repetition, the core, the redundancy."
"And so it is with the Holy Trinity," says Dr. Lemler, "Over and over again . . . blah, blah, blah, love . . blah, blah, blah, love . . ."
"God the Creator . . . I love you . . . blah, blah, blah .. . and give you life.
"God the Redeemer . . . I love you and . . . blah, blah, blah. . . embrace you in that love forever.
"God the Spirit . . . I love you . . . blah, blah, blah .. . and warm your heart and your soul with my love.
"Blah, blah, blah love . . ."
I wish that is what the people heard that day when the voice spoke from heaven, "Yada, yada, yada, love " But John described it like this: "The crowd that was there and heard the voice said it had thundered . . . "
18. Looking at the World through the Eyes of God - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
I can't think of a greater condemnation to be levied against a people than this: They loved darkness instead of light. I would never want that to be said of me. But that is the way God sees the world. You and I see the world as it is right now. Most of the people around us try and do the right thing and when we are wrong hopefully we apologize. So we tend to think well of most people. But look out on the passage of time….
The Ancient World of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Hellenism, Rome, Persia, India, and East Asia was filled with the ignorance of hundreds of thousands of gods, magic, rituals, superstitions, human sacrifice, conquests, sewage(refuse was mostly thrown into the streets for the rats and dogs), disease (priests attempted to foretell the course of a disease by examining the livers of sacrificed animals). And the list doesn't end there: ethnic bigotry, civil wars, persecutions, despots, tyrants, class rule, and the systematic murders of tens of thousands.
The Middle Ages of Persia, Constantinople, Islam, Britain, China, India, Genghis Khan and the Mongols, Timur and the Turks, Europe, African Empires and the Americas. All of them covered in the darkness of man's inhumanity to man: Revolutions, expansionism, Mohammad's Conquest and Christianity's Crusades, warlords, heretics, witchcraft, increased trade bringing death and plagues to millions, and the crowding in the cities spreading the misery all the more. And on top of this misery wars fought for every ridiculous reason known to man.
The Enlightenment and the Modern world also have faired no better. We too have loved the darkness instead of the light. Europe, Africa, Mid-East, India, and the Americas have all dipped their finger into the cesspool of sin: Guns, germs, slavery, the need for women's suffrage, massacres, socialism, resistance to democracy, religious fundamentalism's resistance to progress, Fascism, Communism, The Holocaust, the Ku Klux Klan, greed, the market crash, The Depression, world wars, The Bomb, and lest we forget 9/11.
I can't tell you what a short list this is. And this says nothing of the millions of women and children who have suffered throughout the ages at the hands of ruthless men. There is no way to write that history because it is hidden from the pages of history.
Yes! Men have loved darkness rather than light. There is a morbid destructive tendency in all of us. We dabble in the diabolical. We revel in revenge. And we hate in our hearts. My, how we love to live in the shadows! What must God think of us?
Here is his verdict, as true today as it was when it was pronounced 2000 years ago: Light has come into the world, but men loved darkness instead of light, because their deeds were evil. This is Jesus' description of mankind. And can any of us argue with him?
For a few moments let's look at the world through the eyes of God. What does he see? He sees that....
1. There are those whose deeds are evil.
2. There are those who live by the truth.
3. There are those who acknowledge their need for forgiveness.
19. Why Have You Forsaken Me?
Illustration
Richard A. Wing
I read about a depressed songwriter who battled the successes of the past and a fear of the future. He was bankrupt. He had a cerebral hemorrhage that left him partially paralyzed. He worried that the creative spark that had made him rich was gone. He was depressed. The scriptural texts that were his friends and that his soul could hear were texts such as "Why have you forsaken me?"
In the midst of his depression, a man came by who had compiled scriptures together in a semi-orderly fashion. He suggested that the songwriter put some music to the text. The writer looked at the text that read, "He was despised and rejected of humanity," and he felt that way, too. He read texts of the one for whom "no one had pity." He read about the one who trusted God still. He read the words, "I know that my redeemer liveth." He read the words "rejoice" and "hallelujah." That night George Frederic Handel, now regarded as one of the greatest composers of his era, was blessed by a "gentle cosmic light." He was led slowly out of darkness by a desire to write music at a feverish pitch. He worked tirelessly for days until, with manuscript complete, he dropped into a seventeen-hour, death-like sleep. A doctor was summoned to see if he was alive. Out of depression came the light of the Messiah. Out of that depression was left for us a light that would light the corridors of the lives of countless millions for all ages. Out of that darkness, a man in a deep depression began, as Stevenson said of the lamplighter, "punching holes in the darkness."
God punched holes in the darkness through Jesus. Jesus at the end of his life left us words that we can use as we anticipate the coming of the Christ. "Take heed. Listen. Be awake." "Your extremity is God's opportunity."
20. The Light Has Come
Illustration
John E. Sumwalt
Have you ever sat in a lighted room at night, reading or talking, and suddenly the lights go out? What's the first thing you say? Usually everyone says, "Who turned out the light?"
In this age of electricity, light is something we take for granted. Few of us ever experience total darkness. In the city, we have street lights which come on automatically as soon as it begins to get dark. In the country, most farms have a mercury vapor light that stays on all night for security reasons. Consequently, most of us never get a good look at the stars as we used to when all the lights went out at night.
If you ever get the chance to go out in the desert at night do it. The darkness on nights with no moon or star light isso total someone could be standing right next to you and you wouldn't know it.
This text from John's gospel is about darkness and light: "And this is the judgment," John says, "that the light has come into the world and people loved darkness rather than light because their deeds were evil."
21. The Temptation We Face Everyday
Illustration
Warren Hudson
"One night at the end of a special Saturday night worship service," writes Warren Hudson of Ontario, Canada," a thunderstorm unleashed a bolt of lightning that plunged the church into darkness." With the congregation seated in total darkness, the pastor felt his way to the kitchen to find some candles. The pastor handed out the candles to everyone present. Persons lit their candles in much the same way as many churches do on Christmas Eve, each person lighting the candle of the person next to them. The worshipers then made their way through the church's winding hallways to the front door.
"Peering out, we could see the rain coming down in sheets," Warren remembers. With traffic snarled, people were running for the nearest shelter. Looking around they realized that the entire city was in darkness. "There in the darkness we stood," Warren writes, "a little band of Christians, each clutching a light, not sure whether to venture out into the storm or stay inside the church in hopes that the storm would soon blow over."
There in the darkness the light of truth struck him. In this most dramatic way he realized what it means to be the "light of the world." He writes, "It occurred to me then that this is the temptation I face every day. It is easy to play it safe and be a good Christian in church. It is a lot harder to venture out in faith into the storms of the world."
22. One Side Light, One Side Dark
Illustration
King Duncan
One of the most important symbolic events of the 20th century was the dismantlingof the wall that separated East and West Berlin. The division of post-war Germany and the erection of the Berlin Wall wasa constant reminder of the division between East and West. It also had been a symbol of repression and brutality. Visitors to the Berlin Wall over its last two decades noted that one of the most striking features of this division was the dim lighting on the East side. Whether this was due to a lack of streetlights, billboards, advertising displays, fewer automobiles or whatever, visitors took this striking contrast as significant - for West Berlin is one of the most brilliantly lighted cities in the world. On one side darkness; on the other, light.
The entire world is like that. Wouldn't you like to take the light of Christmas and light up the world? That is the dream of every man, woman, young person who bears the name of Jesus. The light has shined into the darkness and the darkness has not overcome it.
23. The Warning and Promise of Advent
Illustration
Susan R. Andrews
William Willimon tells the story of a funeral he attended when he was serving a small congregation in rural Georgia. One of his members' relatives died, so Willimon and his wife attended the funeral held in an off-brand, country Baptist church. He writes: "I had never seen anything like it. The preacher began to preach. He shouted; he flailed his arms. 'It's too late for Joe. He's dead. But it ain't too late for you. People drop dead every day. Why wait? Now is the day for decision. Give your life to Jesus.' "
Willimon goes on to suggest that this was the worst thing he had ever seen. He fumed and fussed at his wife Patsy, complaining that the preacher had done the worst thing possible for a grieving family - manipulating them with guilt and shame. Patsy agreed. But then she said: "Of course the worst part of it all is that what he said is true."
My friends, each one of us lives in the shadow of the apocalypse - the dark reality of the end of our time and the end of the world's time. That is the warning of Advent. But there is also good news. There is also the promise of Advent - the promise that in the darkness, in the shadows, in the unpredictable anxiety of our unfinished lives, God is present. God is in control, and God will come again. With each candle we light, the shadows recede a bit, and the promise comes closer. With each candle we light, we are proclaiming that the light shines in the darkness and the darkness will never overcome it. The promise is that wherever there is darkness and dread in our lives, wherever there is darkness and dread in the world around us, God is present to help us endure. God is in charge, and hope is alive. And as long and as interminable as the night seems, morning will come - in God's good time and God's good way.
24. Where the Scary Things Live
Illustration
Johnny Dean
For most of us, becoming adults hasn't necessarily cured us of our fear of the dark. Oh, we may have switched to waterbeds that nothing could possibly get underneath. And our closets may be a little bigger (although still not big enough) and they're filled with business suits or work clothes instead of building blocks and athletic gear. But at night, when the lights are out and the children are safely tucked into bed to wrestle with THEIR fears, our own monsters come to life and torment us yet again.
Am I a caring husband? Am I a loving wife? Do I really try to understand my spouse's point of view? Are we raising our children the right way? What about my parents? Am I doing all I can to make their later years as pleasant as they made my early years? Can I be sure my children aren't experimenting with drugs? When will I ever be able to slow down? Why doesn't someone invent a magic pill that will make all these excess pounds I'm carrying around disappear overnight, never to return again? Why do I never seem to be satisfied any more? Where is God in the middle of all this chaos in my life?
Yes, in the light of day we function pretty well through this messy maze of life - paying bills, getting family schedules coordinated, even managing once in a while to eat those high-fiber, low-fat meals our doctors tell us we're supposed to eat. And the fear of our unknowns, the scary stuff, is kept safely at arm's length, barricaded securely behind our busy work schedules and microwave dinners.
But when our world slows down a little, when darkness falls, the fears creep in. No they don't - they RUSH into our lives, our hearts, our minds, our very souls, and the torture begins once again. Does it always have to be that way?
Quoting the prophet Isaiah, Jesus said, "The people who lived in darkness have seen a great light, and to those who sat in the region and shadow of death light has dawned." And there's something inside us that wants to believe that if anything in this life is true, THIS is! Something inside us wants to believe that this is the only hope worth hanging on to, that here is a way out of the fearful mess we've made of our lives. Somewhere, sometime, we believe that WE have seen that light. We remember seeing it, once upon a time, a long time ago. If only we could find it again - or if IT could find US - then maybe the darkness wouldn't be quite so threatening and ominous.
25. The Peace of Christ in a World of Chaos - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
One of the best newspaper cartoons of all time is Calvin and Hobbes. One day Calvin and Hobbes come marching into the living room early one morning. His mother is seated there in her favorite chair. She is sipping her morning coffee. She looks up at young Calvin. She is amused and amazed at how he is dressed. Calvin's head is encased in a large space helmet. A cape is draped around his neck, across his shoulders, down his back and is dragging on the floor. One hand is holding a flashlight and the other a baseball bat.
"What's up today?" asks his mom.
"Nothing, so far," answers Calvin.
"So far?" she questions.
"Well, you never know," Calvin says, "Something could happen today." Then Calvin marches off, "And if anything does, by golly, I'm going to be ready for it!"
Calvin's mom looks out at the reading audience and she says, "I need a suit like that!"
That's the way many of us feel as we see the news and deal with life. Sometimes this world seems quite violent and people seem to be at each other's throats. A suit like that would help, so we can say with Calvin, "Whatever may come my way, I'm going to be ready for it! Bring it on!"
Well, I don't have a suit like Calvin's to give you this morning, but I do have word for this morning: Peace I leave with you; my peace I give you. I do not give to you as the world gives. Do not let your hearts be troubled and do not be afraid.
There is a defining phrase in that statement. One that tells us what kind of peace it is that Christ gives us. Listen to it again and see if you can pick it out: "Peace I leave with you; my peace I give you. I do not give to you as the world gives. Do not let your hearts be troubled and do not be afraid." The defining phrase is: "Not as the world gives." Do you see how that defines God's peace? The world promises peace through the rule of law. Law and order is the only way for a society and a people to experience peace and law and order must be kept by the aggressive use of force. That's the only way that the world can bring about peace.
But here is how Jesus will give you peace. If you obey his word He and the Father will come to you and make a home with you. Right in your heart. Not by force but by choice. They will abide in your heart bringing peace. The world's peace is peace through strength. The Lord's peace is peace through surrender.
We have all been asked by our children: if you could have any wish what would it be? I think the most common answer given is world peace. Peace is important. Jesus makes a point to tell his disciples that he going to leave them with peace. Peace is part a vital part of our faith. Let's look a little closer at what Jesus means by peace:
1. First, there is the Peace the World Gives
2. Second, there is the Peace the Lord Gives
3. Third, there is the Obedience We Give
26. From Darkness to Light
Illustration
Bill Wigmore
Sometime in the 5th century, when the Church decided to settle on a day to celebrate Christ’s birth, it’s interesting to see the date they chose. They chose the time of the year when the nights, at least in the Northern hemisphere are at their very longest & coldest. When the world is dark, and when everything in it is nearly frozen & dead. It's thenthat the words we hearfrom Isaiah the prophet make their most sense: The people who walked in darkness will see a great light; those who dwell in a land of deep darkness, on them a light will shine.
27. Luke's Stories
Illustration
Richard A. Jensen
Luke is fond of telling stories of faith. In his stories Luke narrates scenes in which trust in the spoken word from God is the very essence of faith.
It all begins with an old priest named Zechariah. This is the first story that Luke tells us in his Gospel. One day, Luke writes, the lot fell to Zechariah to enter the temple of the Lord and burn incense. As he was about to perform this sacred task, however, an angel of the Lord appeared to him standing just to the right of the altar. Zechariah was troubled. Fear fell upon him. The angel spoke words of comfort to Zechariah. "Do not be afraid, Zechariah," the angel said, "for your prayer has been heard. Your wife Elizabeth will bear you a son, and you will name him John" (Luke 1:13). The angel Gabriel went on to announce to Zechariah that his son John would be filled with the Holy Spirit and would make the way ready for the Messiah to come. Zechariah had heard a word spoken to him from God. Zechariah had heard a word from Gabriel announcing new realities that were to come to pass.
Of such stuff is faith composed as Luke tells the story. Faith, or unfaith! Zechariah heard the word from God. He did not believe it! "How will I know that this is so?" Zechariah demanded of the angel (Luke 1:18). "I'm an old man and my wife is old too. How can this word be?" "I am Gabriel," the angel shot back. "How will I know?" said Zechariah. "I am Gabriel," came the reply. And the angel continued. "... because you did not believe my words, which will be fulfilled in their time, you will become mute, unable to speak, until the day these things occur" (Luke 1:20). "You did not believe my words." That is the heart of Zechariah's unbelief. Mary is next in line. Six months into Elizabeth's pregnancy Gabriel spoke words from God to Mary. "Hail, O favored one, the Lord is with you" (Luke 1:28).
That was Gabriel's greeting to Mary. Like Zechariah before her, Mary was troubled and afraid at the sound of the angel's voice. Gabriel spoke to her as he had spoken to Zechariah: "Do not be afraid, Mary, for you have found favor with God. And now, you will conceive in your womb and bear a son, and you will name him Jesus" (Luke 1:31). Mary, like Zechariah, heard a word spoken to her from God. Mary, too, is unsure. "How can this be," she protests, "since I am a virgin?" (Luke 1:34). Gabriel told Mary that it will be because the Holy Spirit will make it happen. Mary was satisfied. She spoke great words of faith. "Here I am," she said, "the servant of the Lord; let it be with me according to your word" (Luke 1:38). "You did not believe my words," said Gabriel to Zechariah. That is the heart of Zechariah's unfaith. "...let it be with me according to your word," were Mary's words to Gabriel. This is the heart of Mary's faith.
Faith is called into being by a word spoken from God. A centurion in Capernaum grasped this reality very well. "Only say the word ...," the centurion said. Luke presents this rather unlikely fellow, this centurion, this stranger to Israel, this foreigner as a model of faith. "Only say the word ...."
28. BE A DARKNESS DISPELLER
Illustration
John H. Krahn
As you got out of bed this morning, did you feel like you belonged to a chosen people, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people belonging to God? And tomorrow morning, as the daily grind begins again, will you be thinking as you brush the old ivories, "What ways am I going to declare God’s wonderful deeds today?" Will any of us plot how we might upset the devil, the prince of terrorists? How many of us will let the light of Christ shine through us and be among the darkness dispellers? Will any of us seek to be the light of Christ in a darkening world?
Reading the Bible, it becomes evident that Christianity is not a solo proposition. Christianity comes to us through Christian community. Without a relation to the community or church, our individual Christianity is weakened and incomplete. The church is Christ’s body on earth today. The light of Christ shines in the world through each of us as we take seriously that we are a chosen people belonging to God.
There is no disembodied Christianity. The Lord calls us to relate to him in the community of the church with all of its warts and imperfections. Christianity is a social faith, a community of fellow believers. Jesus continues to build his church upon our confession of faith that he was the one promised by the Father to die and pay the penalty of our sinfulness and to defeat death and the grave by rising again. No individual makes the church. Saint Paul speaks of members of the body of Christ; members mean absolutely nothing when they are severed from the body. Every functioning, contributing, participating member is important to the good of our witness.
Jesus Christ is the cornerstone of the church. We are each to be a living stone cemented to the cornerstone and to one another. Each of us has a divine destiny and a place in the drama of divine redemption. We have been baptized into a high vocation. We were once nobody’s people, destined to hell. We are now God’s people, called to serve the Lord, on our way to heaven. We have gone from rags to riches, from a pig sty to a royal palace.
We are God’s own people. We belong to God, saved from hell by the sacrifice of Christ. We are, therefore, called to produce - produce the light of Christ in our words and deeds. We are called by Christ to servanthood, to sacrifice, into ministry. Such ministry is fed and coordinated in the local parish. If each Christian took seriously the Lord’s Word, our ministry and effectiveness as darkness dispellers would double, perhaps even triple. With the help of God, let’s turn on our lights ... full strength.
29. Our Task in the Darkness
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
At age twelve, Robert Louis Stevenson was looking out into the dark from his upstairs window watching a man light the streetlamps. Stevenson’s governess came into the room and asked what he was doing. He replied, "I am watching a man cut holes in the darkness."
This is a marvelous picture of what our task should be as sharers of God's light—people who are busy cutting holes in the spiritual darkness of our world.
30. Stumbling in the Dark
Illustration
Tony Damato
When my family and I went to Disney World, we went through the cave on Tom Sawyer’s Island. The darkness in this cave was so deep that there was nothing for your eyes to adjust to. As you walked you had to listen for the person in front of you so you wouldn’t bump into him. I did bump into the next person and so waited a while for him to go forward. And after a few minutes realized that he had moved on already and I had been waiting for so long for nothing. The light when you finally came out of the cave was welcome and brilliant.
But many people today are like a person walking in the darkness, stumbling along, bumping into things and afraid to step.
But we have a light to light our way and guide us. Psalm 119:105 says: “Thy word is a lamp unto my feet and a light unto my path.”
31. In a Dark Cave
Illustration
John R. Steward
A man was once put in a dark cave. He was sentenced to die in the cave unless he could find his way out. The cave was 100 yards by 100 yards and he was told that there really was a way out.
The cave was sealed by a very large rock. After the cave was sealed the prisoner was allowed to take off his blindfold. In the midst of the darkness he walked around the cave. He had food, but it was bread and water which would only last for thirty days. The food was lowered to him from a hole in the ceiling of the cave which was about eighteen feet high. The opening was only one foot in diameter.
The man investigated the cave and soon discovered that there was a pile of rocks. He quickly determined that if he could build up the pile of rocks even higher, perhaps he could escape. By calculating both his height and his reach he believed that he needed to build the mound ten feet high.
Every moment was devoted to finding rocks and placing them in the pile. After two weeks he had built the mound to about six feet. He figured that over the next two weeks he could complete the task before the food would run out. He had not taken into account that he had already used up most of the rocks in the cave. Now he would have to use the rocks that were left and certainly more dirt. He had nothing with which to dig but his bare hands. After the next two weeks had passed he had only built the mound to nine-and-a-half feet; he thought that he could perhaps reach the opening if he were to jump. At this point he was near exhaustion. As he tried to jump and reach the opening he fell. Now he was too weak to get up and try again and in two days he was dead.
When they came to remove his body from the cave, they removed the large stone that covered the entrance, and the light that poured in revealed everything. In the light it was evident that there was an opening in the wall of the cave at ground level. The hole in the wall was the beginning of a tunnel that traveled for 200 feet and led to freedom. The captured man had so focused on the opening above that he never thought that there could be another way out of the cave. The opening was right next to the mound that he had been building. The trouble was that the opening on the ground level was in the darkness and did not seem possible to him.
Too often people reject Jesus as a way to freedom because it seems too easy or impractical. Sometimes he is rejected because it seems too dark and difficult. We think that we can do it by our own efforts and that we do notneed his help. Today he asks us to let go of all of our attempts to find freedom and follow him.
Adapted fromJohn Bradshaw, Healing the Shame that Binds (Deerfield Beach, Florida: Health Communications, Inc.), p. 117.
32. ARE CHRISTIANS AN ENDANGERED SPECIES?
Illustration
John H. Krahn
Are Christians an endangered species? This is really not the most pleasant question to consider. But at some time or another I would imagine we have all thought about it.
Faced with an uncomfortable question, we find comfort and assurance in God’s Word. Speaking of Jesus, in John 1:5 (GNB) it says, "His life is the light that shines through the darkness - and the darkness can never extinguish it." Never, it says. The power of God’s light can never be extinguished. The good news about Jesus will always be good news. Sin will have its triumphs, but it never will completely prevail.
Most of the danger to Christianity does not come from the outside but from within. I would like to consider with you three of the dangers from within referring to them as Christianity’s sin from within.
There is the endangering problem of self-centeredness or the S of sin from within. Often we get so caught up with our own church or our own denomination that our world view of Christianity doesn’t go much beyond our congregation’s front door. In our quest to preserve our peculiar understanding of Scripture, we often fail to bask in the good news of a Christ who stands at the center of Scripture. The New Testament abounds with encouragement for us to be one with each other - to rejoice in that which unites us in the Body of Christ rather than to dwell upon our theological idiosyncrasies. It is incompatible with Christianity for us to separate ourselves from other Christians in order to do just our own thing. We are going to spend our eternity with all these people. The time to get acquainted and work together is now.
Another aspect of the problem is inhibited love. Inhibited love is the I of the sin from within. There is no virtue in loving someone who is lovable. Anyone can do that - even non-believers. There is no virtue in loving someone with whom we agree, that is almost like loving ourself. Jesus said, "If you love only those who love you, what good is that? Even scoundrels do that much." But there is virtue in uninhibited, unconditional love. We are called by Jesus to embrace with forgiving love a brother or sister who has disappointed or even offended us. Forgiveness flows in a church when the Spirit of God resides in its members. Love that flows freely is the love that Jesus spoke about when he said, "Love your enemies! Pray for those who persecute you. In that way you will be acting as true sons of your Father in heaven."
The final sin from within, represented by the N in sin, is nonchalance. Too many of us take our Christianity too casually - with nonchalance. Saint Paul, in his letter to the Ephesians, encourages us to put on God’s armour so that we will be able to stand safe against all the strategies and tricks of Satan. We are encouraged to use every piece of God’s armor available to us.
Self-centeredness, inhibited love, and nonchalance - three sins from within that endanger Christianity. And so we return to our question, "Are Christians an endangered species?" Some are and some are not. Although we have the promise of God that the light will never go completely out, our task together with the total church is to make sure we shine brightly. We continue to do battle with the forces of evil from both without and from within. To plan to do less is to risk joining the list of endangered species.
33. When the Light Comes
Illustration
William G. Carter
There was a priest in a Midwestern city who wanted to help inner-city children. He wanted them to see something more than their own situations. He put them on a bus and took them to see some things of great beauty. They went to the art museum and saw paintings by the masters. They went to a symphony matinee and heard beautiful music. They went for a walk through a row of homes that were done over by a creative team of architects. That young priest showed those children the best and brightest things he knew. Then they climbed back on the bus and went home. That night one of those young boys set his apartment house on fire. They rescued the neighbors and family, but the place burned down. The priest was in tears when he visited the boy in a detention cell. "Why did you do it?" he asked.
"I saw all those beautiful things," said the boy, "and then I came home and saw how ugly my world was, and I hated the ugliness, so I wanted to burn it down." Shine some light in a dark place and there's no telling what will happen. When all you have ever seen is darkness, that is all you know. And when light comes, it makes for a contrast. Darkness remains a choice. In fact, it is possible for light to come into the world, and for somebody to say, "Turn out the lights!" It is possible for the Light of the world to shine on people, and those very people may not accept it.
34. Let the Lower Lights Be Burning
Illustration
Michael P. Green
Jesus stressed the positive effect we can have on others when he said, “Let your light so shine before men, that they may see your good works and give glory to your Father who is in heaven” (Matt. 5:16, rsv) But if sin dims our testimony so that our “light” is no longer visible, some of those we might have influenced for Christ may drift on in spiritual darkness.
On a dark and stormy night, with waves piling up like mountains on Lake Erie, a boat rocked and plunged near the Cleveland harbor. “Are we on course?” asked the captain, seeing only one beacon from the lighthouse. “Quite sure, sir,” replied the officer at the helm. “Where are the lower lights?” “Gone out, sir.” “Can we make the harbor?” “We must, or perish!” came the reply. With a steady hand and a stalwart heart, the officer headed the ship toward land.
But, in the darkness, he missed the channel and the vessel was dashed to pieces on the rocks. Many lives were lost in a watery grave. This incident moved Philip P. Bliss to write the familiar hymn, “Let the Lower Lights Be Burning.”
35. Our Reflected Light
Illustration
Michael P. Green
The moon shines in the night sky because of reflected light from the sun. Without that reflected light, the moon would become lost in the darkness of space.
The believer in Christ shines only because of the reflection of Christ’s light. Without that reflected light, the believer becomes lost in the darkness of the world and sin.
36. The Word Became Flesh
Illustration
Joel D. Kline
In The Message, Eugene Peterson paraphrases the familiar words of the Word becoming flesh this way: "The Word became flesh and blood, and moved into our neighborhood." This is the remarkable truth we celebrate during the Christmas season, a truth we would do well to carry into the new year—that ours is a creating God who continues to act in human life, bringing light into our darkness, hope into our despair, life into our brokenness, love into our fear and suspicion and dread. And perhaps it is only when life is at its toughest, when that light seems most elusive, that faith begins to make sense at all. For it is faith that empowers us, when immersed in darkness, to trust in the presence of the light.
37. You Are Accepted
Illustration
King Duncan
As Paul Tillich put it so eloquently: "Grace strikes us when we are in great pain and restlessness . . . It strikes us when our disgust for our own being, our weakness, our hostility, and our lack of direction and composure have become intolerable to us. It strikes us when, year after year, the longed for perfection of life does not appear, when the old compulsions reign with us as they have for decades . . . Sometimes at that moment a wave of light breaks into our darkness, and it is as though a voice were saying: " ‘You are accepted. . . .'"
We are accepted. Now we must accept others. The greatest need some people have is to be accepted. Acceptance changes lives. Let's you and I work together to make this house of worship known as a place where people can discover the acceptance of God and of the Christian community.
The full Tillich quote:Grace Strikes us when we are in great pain and restlessness. It strikes us when we walk through the dark valley of a meaningless and empty life. It strikes us when we feel that our separation is deeper than usual, because we have violated another life, a life which we loved, or from which we were estranged. It strikes us when our disgust for our own being, our indifference, our weakness, our hostility, and our lack of direction and composure have become intolerable to us. It strikes when, year after year, the longed-for perfection of life does not appear, when the old compulsions reign within us as they have for decades, when despair destroys all joy and courage. Sometimes at that moment a wave of light breaks into our darkness and it is as though a voice were saying: “You are accepted. You are accepted. Accepted by that which is greater than you and the name of which you do not know. Do not ask for the name now; perhaps you will find it later. Do not try to do anything now; perhaps later you will do much. Do not seekanything, do not perform anything, do not intend anything. Simply accept the fact that you are accepted. If that happens to us, we experience grace.
38. The Word Became Flesh
Illustration
Paul E. Flesner
If John's Gospel were the only one we had, there would be no little town of Bethlehem. There'd be no shepherds out in their fields. There would be no manger and no virgin birth.No north star and no creche. If John is all we hadhereis all that we would know about Jesus' birth: before his name was Jesus, his name was the Word, and he was with God from the very beginning of creation, bringing things into being, making things happen, shining light into the darkness.
He was God's self, God's soul, God's life force in the world. He was the breath inside all living things. He was the electric spark that charged peoples' hearts. He was the fire inside the sun. He was the space between the stars. He was the axis around which the galaxies spin.
John goes on to say that not everyone got that message. Many were blinded by this light and preferred the darkness they knew to the light which they did not know. The Word sidled up to them and hummed life into their ears, but they cleared their throats and walked away. So God decided to speak in a new way. God decided to speak body language. "And the Word became flesh and lived among us full of grace and truth."
This is John's Christmas story in a nutshell. Like Luke, John is telling us about an encounter with the Holy One. God's Word was translated into a human being. God's self, soul, and life force were concentrated into one mortal life on earth, and as a result, nothing would ever be the same again. Not because everyone listened, because everyone does not, but because the eternal Word of God took human form.
39. Devil Descriptions
Illustration
Merrill F. Unger
Possible Biblical references to Satan:
- Genesis 3:1-14 · He was disguised under the Edenic serpent
- Genesis 3:15 · He is the serpent's seed
- 1 Chronicles 21:1· Satan standsagainst Israel
- Job 1:7-2:10 · He accused and afflicted Job
- Isaiah 14:12 · He was Lucifer, son of the morning before the fall (This verse is erroneously ascribed to Satan. Itactually refers to the king of Babylon, see v. 3)
- Ezekiel 28:14 · He was the anointed cherub that covers (This verse also iserroneously ascribed to Satan. Itactually refers to the king of Tyre, see v. 1)
- Zecheriah 3:1-9 · He is Satan, the Adversary of unbelieving Israel
- Matthew 4:3 · He is the tempter
- Matthew 4:4; Luke 4:10-11 · He perverts the Word of God
- Matthew 12:22-29 · He works in demon possession
- Matthew 12:24; Acts 10:38 · He is the prince of the demons
- Matthew 13:19 · Snatches away the Word
- Matthew 13:38 · "the evil one"
- Matthew 13:38-39 · He sows tares
- Matthew 13:39 · He is "the enemy"
- Matthew 25:41 · He is a fallen angel
- Matthew 25:41; Rev 20:10 · His ultimate fate is Gehenna
- Luke 4:13 · He is the devil, the slanderer
- Luke 10:18 · He fell from a sinless high estate
- Luke 13:16 · He blinds people physically and spiritually
- Luke 22:31 · He viewed Simon Peter as a target
- John 3:8, 10 · His children are unsaved people
- John 8:44 · He was branded "a liar" and "the father of lies" by Jesus
- John 8:44 · He is a murderer
- John 12:31; 14:30 · He is the prince of this world
- John 13:2,27 · He caused Judas to betray Christ
- Acts 5:3 · Educes Ananias to lie
- 2 Corinthians 4:4 · He blinds people spiritually
- Ephesians 2:2 · He indwells the unsaved
- Ephesians 6:10-20 · He is routed by Spirit-directed prayer
- Ephesians 6:11-12 · He heads a celestial hierarchy of evil
- 1 Thessalonians 2:18 · He hinders God's will in believers
- 2 Thessalonians 2:9 · He works diabolic miracles
- 1 Timothy 4:1-6 · He instigates false doctrine
- 1 Peter 5:8 · He seeks to harm believers
- 1 Peter 5:8-9 · He is overcome by faith
- Revelation 2:9 · He has a synagogue of legalists who deny God's grace in Christ
- Revelation 12:9 · He is the deceiver
- Revelation 12:9; 20:2 · He is the dragon, that old serpent
- Revelation 20:1-3 · He will be bound during the millennium
40. Warmth, Warmth, More Warmth
Illustration
John Claypool
Johann Wolfgang Goethe was the last of the so-called universal human beings. I mean by that, he was one of the last of our western civilization to have gained the mastery of every academic discipline. In his long life, he became renowned as a poet, as an artist, as a musician, as a playwright and historian. There was hardly a single facet of human knowledge of which he did not have a tremendous grasp. As he lay dying in 1832, the story is that he suddenly sat up, bolted upright in bed, and cried out with great poignancy, "Light, light, more light." One of his biographers said that this was a fitting climax to this particular individual's life because his whole existence had been dedicated to learning more, to pushing back the parameters of darkness. He died as he lived, wanting to learn more.
Many decades later Miguel Unamuno, the great Spanish philosopher, was reading a biography of Goethe and when he came to the death-bed scene, he allegedly read out loud to his wife what I have just described. Then he closed the book and said very thoughtfully, "You know for all his brilliance, Goethe was mistaken. Instead of crying for light, light, more light, what he should have asked for was warmth, warmth, more warmth, for human beings do not die of the darkness; they die of the cold."
41. Waiting for More
Illustration
Joel D. Kline
Some Christians make their faith sound so simple. Find Jesus, they assert, be saved, and that will take care of everything. All will be finished, done, complete, settled. But to embrace the light and love of Christ is just the beginning. It is a significant step, but only a beginning. We must then struggle with the presence of darkness, even as we affirm God's gift of light. We must then grapple with the challenge to be co-creators with God as we anticipate that new creation.
William Willimon, dean of the chapel at DukeUniversity, asserts:
Show me a person who is not waiting [for something more to come], not yearning, not leaning forward, standing on tiptoe for something better, and I will show you a person who has given up hope for anything better, someone who has settled down too comfortably in present arrangements. And that's sad. The future belongs to those who wait, for those who know we are meant for something better. The present darkness is not our final destination.
42. Blasphemy Against the Spirit
Illustration
Staff
This statement (Matt 12:32, par Mk. 3:29, Luke 12:10) has been the subject of much questioning. Obviously the reference here is not to the naming of the Holy Spirit in a blasphemous utterance, for in Matt. 12:32 even blasphemy against the Son of man can be forgiven. Among the many attempts at exegesis, the most convincing is the suggestion that the man who blasphemes against the Holy Spirit is he who has recognized that God is working through the Holy Spirit in the actions of Jesus, and who quite consciously "misrepresent faith in God as faith in the devil. This saying is an extremely serious warning against the demonic and scarcely conceivable potential in man: To declare war on God. This is not done in weakness and doubt, but by one who has been overcome by the Holy Spirit and who knows very well on whom he is declaring war" (E. Schweizer, The Good News according to Mark, 1971, 87; cf. H.W. Beyer, TDNT I:624; O.E. Evans, "The Unforgivable Sin", ExpT 68, 1956-57, 240-44). This is the blasphemer who does it deliberately, after encounter with the God of grace, as the context shows. For Jesus has just been accused of casting out demons by Beelzebul, the prince of demons. "Therefore he who blasphemes the Spirit is no longer speaking against a God who is distant, about whom he entertains mere foolish thoughts, but against the one who makes evident to him his gracious work, and confirms it with his manifest, divine seal. He is a man who ought to give thanks, not to blaspheme" (A. Schlatter, on Matt. 12:32).
W.L. Lane draws attention to Sifre on Deut. 32:38 (end): "The Holy One, blessed be he, pardons everything else, but on profanation of the Name [i.e. blasphemy] he takes vengeance immediately" (The Gospel of Mark, NLC, 1974, 145) Lane goes on to comment: "This is the danger to which the scribes exposed themselves when they attributed to the agency of Satan the redemption brought by Jesus. The expulsion of demons was a sign of the intrusion of the Kingdom of God. Yet the scribal accusations against Jesus amount to a denial of the power and greatness of the Spirit of God. By assigning the action of Jesus to a demonic origin the scribes betray a perversion of spirit which, in defiance of the truth, chooses to call light darkness. In this historical context, blasphemy against the Holy Spirit denotes the conscious and deliberate rejection of the saving power and grace of God released through Jesus' work and act" (ibid). Thus blasphemy here is much more serious than the taking of the divine name in vain which a believer may have done before coming to repentance and faith.
It may be said to those who have been tormented by fear that they have committed the unforgivable sin that their concern is itself a sign that they have not committed the sin envisaged in Jesus' teaching here. Lane's interpretation also helps to explain the distinction drawn between blasphemy against the Son of man and blasphemy against the Holy Spirit. The distinction suggests that "while an attack on Jesus' own person, as son of Man and therefore 'hidden', is pardonable, any speaking against the power by which he works (i.e. the divine endowment for his messianic ministry) will not be pardoned" (D. Hill, The Gospel of Matthew, New Century Bible, 1972, 318). For such an action would be deliberately to attribute to Satan the action of God himself. (NIDNTT, v. 3, pp. 343-344)
What is blasphemy against the Holy Spirit? Though many suggestions have been offered, I think the answer lies in the context here (Luke 12:7-12) and in the context of redemptive history. Remember that the Holy Spirit had not yet been poured out, and it is the Spirit who causes men to recognize who Jesus is. Hebrews 6 and 10 contain discussions of unforgivable sins, but the distinction between blasphemy against Christ and the Spirit has disappeared. Jesus seemed to be saying this: Because the Holy spirit has not yet been poured out in fullness, the Jews will be forgiven for blaspheming the Son of Man. They will be given a second chance to repent, as we see in the book of Acts. If, however, they continue to blaspheme after the Spirit has come, they will not be forgiven. But what is the sin, specifically? Since it is blasphemy, we must see it essentially as a verbal sin. In context it is the sin of saying that Jesus Christ is of the devil. Jesus was willing to excuse this blasphemy before Pentecost; but, in the new covenant era it is not longer excusable. If a person curses Jesus, but does not really know who Jesus is, that sin is forgivable. But if the Holy Spirit has borne witness to a person that Jesus is indeed the Son of God, and that person curses Him, it cannot be forgiven.
43. The Adoration of the Shepherds
Illustration
King Duncan
Pastor Earl Palmer of the First Presbyterian Church of Berkeley tells about Rembrandt’s painting called The Adoration of the Shepherds:
“This is Rembrandt’s interpretation of the visit of the shepherds to the babe in Bethlehem. It is a simple scene in a stable. In the foreground are the mother and child, with Joseph in the shadows in the background. Peering into the manger where the babe is lying are the shepherds, with their sheep scattered around them. They could not leave the sheep in the field, they had to bring them along. Arching above the manger the artist has painted a ladder which suggests, in the shadows it casts, the form of a cross. Rembrandt was too great a painter just to put a cross in, with no justification in terms of the picture itself, but the ladder subtly suggests it. And on the beam against which the ladder rests is a rooster, the symbol of betrayal. The artist is suggesting that it is by means of the crushing inner agony of betrayal, and the outer agony of crucifixion, that the One in the manger would become the world’s Deliverer and Redeemer.
“But the striking thing about the picture is that the light illuminating the whole scene is not coming from outside but from the manger where the babe is lying. There is no halo over the babe, such as medieval painters often employed, but the light which illuminates the faces looking in is streaming from the manger. Their faces are put into sharp relief as they look down, and you can see that the light is coming from the babe himself. That is Rembrandt’s very remarkable way of saying that the story of Christmas is the story of light in darkness.”
44. The Meaning of Life - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
In Act 5 scene 5 of Shakespeare's Macbeth, the character Macbeth has heard that the queen is dead and he knows his own death is imminent. At this time he delivers his famous soliloquy:
Tomorrow, and tomorrow and tomorrow
creeps in this petty pace from day to day,
To the last syllable of recorded time,
And all our yesterdays have lighted fools
The way to dusty death. Out, Out, brief candle
Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage
and then is heard no more. It is a tale
Told by an idiot. Full of sound and fury
Signifying nothing.
Is Macbeth right? Is life nothing but a shadow having no substance, no meaning? Writers and philosophers since recorded time have tried to answer the question. I don't think any of them have been successful in answering the question to everyone's satisfaction. Some one once said that "Trying to speak about the ultimate reality is like sending a kiss through a messenger." I understand their point: Something of its truth is lost in the translation.
What is the meaning of life? A philosophical question to be sure but this is not only the philosopher's question. It is a genuinely human question and therefore a question that we all ask. It might be a question that is asked in despair or hope, out of cynicism, or out of sincere curiosity and a deep desire to have goals and guidance in life. However we raise the question about the meaning of life, it is our most basic and fundamental question.
And so it comes as no surprise that Jesus deals with this question and answers it. Surprisingly, the answer is not given in the context of an argument with the Jewish leaders or in a discussion with his disciples, and it is not given in the Sermon on the Mount where Jesus deals with so many fundamental issues. It is telling that Jesus deals with the meaning of life in the context of prayer.
In the context of what has been called, by many scholars, Jesus' High Priestly Prayer. [Pause] The Disciples are in the upper room, now. They have just finished the Passover meal and Jesus is thinking about his crucifixion which will occur within the next 24 hours. He knows he is about to leave his disciples alone in the world and he goes before God as a priest would, to intercede for them, to pray for them.
Listen again to his prayer. I am lifting out a few key verses: "While I was with them, I protected them and kept them safe, but I will remain in the world no longer…Holy Father, protect them by the power of your name—the name you gave me—so that they may be one as we are one. Father, the time has come. Glorify your Son, that your son may glorify you. For you granted him authority over all people that he might give eternal life…and this is eternal life: that they may know you, the only true God, and Jesus Christ, whom you have sent." It is in this third verse that Jesus delivers the meaning of eternal life and in essence the meaning of life itself. He says, "Now this is eternal life: that they may know you, the only true God, and Jesus Christ, whom you have sent."
In essence, Jesus says, "the meaning of life is this: that you have a relationship with God, and me his Son, Jesus Christ." And that's the long and short of it! But, Jesus himself, understood just how difficult it was going to be not only for his disciples but for all of us to come to this very simple realization in life and so he prays for two key things. First, in order that we might understand the meaning of life…
1. He Prays for Our Protection from the World.
2. He Prays That We Might Know God.
45. Immortality: Quality vs. Quantity
Illustration
Gary R. Habermas & J.P. Moreland
While none of the actual terms for immortality are found in the gospel teachings of Jesus, he addresses the subject in passages such as Luke 20:27-40 and John 11:25-26. Strawson claims that, for Jesus and his Jewish contemporaries, immortality was synonymous with resurrection (Jesus and the Future Life, p. 209). Murray Harris holds that, while the two terms are distinct, they are also inseparable, for the resurrection inevitably involves the acquiring of immortality. They are interdependent sides of the same truth. See his volume, Raised Immortal: Resurrection and Immortality in the New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1983), pp. 199-201, 209-214, 232-236, for a stimulating and detailed study of this subject.
We also want to be clear that the term immortality is not to be confused with notions such as the Greek concept of immortality of the soul. Actually, three Greek synonyms (athanasia, aphtharsia, aphtartos) are used only eleven times in the New Testament (ten by Paul and one by Peter) to refer to the believer's life after death. In no case are these terms applied directly to the human soul. In fact, the Greek teaching had very little influence in Palestine anyway. For several reasons why Paul, in particular, opposed this Greek belief, see the next section of this chapter. Further, Paul specifically used immortality and eternal life in a related manner in Rom. 2:7 (cf. Gal. 6:8; 2 Tim. 1:10), while interchanging his references to immortality and the resurrection of the body in 1 Cor. 15:50-55. He thereby asserts that the term eternal life in the New Testament "refers primarily to quality ... secondarily to quantity ... Immortality, on the other hand, refers primarily to quantity ... and secondarily to quality" (see p. 199; cf. pp. 273-275).
46. Two Kinds of Life and Death
Illustration
John R. Brokhoff
Two Kinds of Life:The Greeks had two words for "life" and both appear in the New Testament. One is bios from which we get "biology." It refers to biological and physical life. It is not true life but mere existence. This is life in terms of quantity and extension. Methuselah, the oldest man in the Bible, had this kind of life. He lived 969 years, but there is no record of any contribution he made to the welfare of society.
The other Greek word is zoe. It is used to denote true life, the quality of life. It is spiritual life with God as the source of life. While bios is temporal, zoe is eternal. The one deals with the body and the other with the soul. But this eternal life also has quantity, for it extends through eternity. To distinguish this type of life from the former, the New Testament uses "eternal life."
Two Kinds of Death: As there are two kinds of life, there are two kinds of death. The bios type of life ends in physical death. The body declines, deteriorates, and dies. This is in accord with the natural order, for all living things die, including hom*o sapiens. If a human were only a physical body, the person would come to an end. In this case, death has the last word and is the ultimate victor over life.
There is another kind of death. The Bible speaks of death in terms of separation from God. "The soul that sins shall die" (Ezekiel 18:4). Sin is the dreadful agent that separates us from God. To be apart from God, from life, love, joy, and peace, is to be dead. Does this mean that the soul is exterminated or extinguished? If so, there would be a merciful nothingness. However, the Bible teaches that a soul apart from God, living in death, is in hell, a state of misery. Paul describes the condition in hell: "They shall suffer the punishment of eternal destruction and exclusion from the presence of the Lord and from the glory of his might" (2 Thessalonians 1:9). As there is eternal life, there is also everlasting death. It is to save us from this fate that God gave his Son to die for us and to reinstate us with God in whom we have eternal life. The scriptures repeatedly assure us that God does not want a single soul to perish or to be lost or to go to hell. In Christ, God the Father gave his very self to prevent people from going to everlasting death.
47. Death and Resurrection
Illustration
We, as human beings, whoever we are and whatever station in life we are in, all stand on common ground when we realize that we all at sometime in life fear death, we all live in the presence of death, that all men, in some way or another, have been hurt by death. And it does not only touch the life of the elderly. In his preface of "Bread For the World", Author Simon reminds us that before we complete reading this brief preface that four people in the world will have died of starvation, most of them children. So no matter who you are, whether you are in the sunset years and expect to live fewer years than you have lived to date, or whether you are just beginning life's journey—death is real. All of the wars in the world have not increased the death toll by one. It robs people of valuable years of their life but it in no way increases the death toll, for all of us, one day, shall have to go through the experience of death.
I have always wondered about the cynics and non-believers. What do they do at Easter? Have you ever wondered about that. On that day when the Christian church joyfully celebrates the resurrection of Jesus Christ, what do they do. Humanism is all right for the classroom, but it leaves you nothing at an icy graveside. It is precisely at that point that Christianity responds: Yes, we shall see our loved ones again and all be reunited.
Some demand that they need proof and documentation. I wonder what kind proof that they desire. There is more documented evidence that Jesus Christ rose from the dead than there is that Julius Caesar ever lived. There is more evidence of the resurrection than there is that Alexander the Great died at age 33. I have always found it interesting that some will accept thousands of facts for which there are only shreds of evidence, but in the face of overwhelming evidence of the resurrection they cast a skeptical doubt, because it is so unique. We say that we want the facts. Well the facts are that in the history of the ancient world the resurrection has been attested to as much as most of the events that we routinely accept and read in the history books.
In the early nineties the ABC news show 20/20 had an interesting segment on the shroud of Turin. If you were completely out of touch at that time and have not heard of the shroud of Turin, let me tell you that it is supposed to be the cloth that Jesus was buried in. And on this cloth is an imprint of the person of Jesus. It is now housed in a cathedral in Turin, Italy. Several years ago an international team of scientists, consisting of Christians, Jews, Moslems, and non-believers, set about to prove or disprove the story behind this ancient cloth. The results of their findings were published in an issue of National Geographic magazine.
The interesting thing to me about the 20/20 story was an interview that they had with one of the scientists, an Air Force colonel who was a specialist in laser technology. He openly admitted that he began the project not only as a non-Christian, but as a person who was openly anti-religious. I relished this opportunity, he said, to debunk what I considered a childish myth. Haraldo Rivera asked him: Now that you have spent four years on this project what is your response. His response not only shocking, but it was shocking that 20/20 allowed it to go on the air. He said: After four years on this project, I now fall upon my knees and worship a resurrected Christ.
It would be nice if we could hold some physical evidence in our hands to prove it all, but I would mislead you this Easter Day if I left the impression that the resurrection was a matter of fact. For in the end, the resurrection is a religious belief. In the end you cannot prove it or disprove it. And that is why some brilliant people believe and why some brilliant people do not believe. Because you cannot prove it one way or the other. There just are not any photographs. In the end we must fall back upon the words of the resurrected Christ to the disciple Thomas: Thomas, you have believed because you have seen. Blessed are those who have not seen, and yet believe.
48. Turning Toward the Light
Illustration
Brett Blair
A little boy named Bobby entered his first science fair in second grade. Because his Mom has a green thumb, they decided to experiment with the growth of plants. He took two small green plants and placed one on a sunny windowsill and the other in a cardboard box. After a couple of weeks, Bobby checked on the two plants. The one on the windowsill had grown a couple of inches and had vibrant green leaves. The one in the box had actually grown a bit, but it had lost all of its green color, becoming almost white and its leaves drooping. Thinking that the plant might die, Bobby cut a hole in one side of the box, and set the box, with the plant inside, by the windowsill … with the hole facing toward the incoming light. Well you know what happened … but Bobby was so excited by this discovery! Yes, over the course of a few weeks, the plant began to grow out through the hole! And, a couple of weeks later, it turned to grow up toward the light and even blossomed! The plant that had been in gloomy darkness … and was all but dead … had seen a great light, it turned toward that light and blossomed!
Well, Matthew wrote … after the crucifixion and the resurrection of Jesus Christ …and therefore with the full realization of who this man of God was … he wrote that the Light had certainly dawned on the people by the sea, the kingdom of heaven had definitely come near; it had dawned and come near in the person of Jesus Christ … in the personified love and power of God that makes people …different … alive!
49. FROM SOAP TO CERTAINTY
Illustration
John H. Krahn
Silhouetted figures made their way to the tomb as the first sliver of light graced the darkened earth. Jesus was dead. They still couldn’t believe it. It was like a bad dream of grand proportions. The ring of hammer upon nail still echoed in their ears; the horrendous sight of crucified bodies was burned indelibly into their brains. With him had died the hopes of eleven broken men. The sun had set on their lives, plunging them into forever darkness. Men and women who loved him, who believed in him, had their hopes raised to heaven only to then have them dashed to the depths.
A day of surprises was now dawning; the day of all days was commencing; a spirit of caring propelled the three women forward, not knowing how they would even be able to enter the grave. But God had opened the tomb. A rock, however big, would not block the Christ who spoke of faith great enough to move mountains. Entering the tomb, black Friday becomes Good Friday, hope returns to the hopeless, death is replaced by life.
Each of us has had our bad Fridays when someone has crucified our hopes, when someone close to us has scorned our love, when our hearts have worn the black band of betrayal, when we have sold our integrity for thirty pieces of silver, when the shadows of life outdistance the rays of sunlight. There is not one person who does not need healing in some aspect of his or her life. No one can stand before the cross and say, "Jesus, like you, I have no sin."
All of us know the Easter story, but what God really desires is that we all encounter the living Christ. I have seen the living Christ. I have been an eyewitness who has seen purpose enter into aimless lives. I have seen calmness overcome chaos. I have seen him strengthen the weak, bring healing to the sick, and comfort to the bereaved. I have seen him bestow joy and confidence to lives shattered by an angry and cruel world. I have experienced his presence in my life and in the lives of others.
I know that my Redeemer lives. I even know your Redeemer lives. If you know it too, praise God with your lives. Without the resurrection, death and taxes are the sum of life’s certainties. With Jesus Christ, our lives cease being daily soap operas and become divine certainties to be lived to the fullest with the final chapter to be played before the throne of Almighty God.
50. The End of the World
Illustration
Donald Dotterer
There is a beautiful valley in Switzerland which is deeply hidden in that mountain range known as the Alps. That valley is completely surrounded by steep mountain walls. If one enters this valley, that person will move along the only road until it ends at the base of a steep wall of rock.
The Swiss call this place the "End of the World." However, if one is willing to go climbing by foot, Swiss guides will show a determined hiker the path that leads up and over that mountain barrier.
Reflecting upon this natural phenomenon, Harleigh Rosenberger comments that many people believe that life is like a road that runs through the valley of time. "We cannot turn back but must continue walking onward. The days pass quickly and then comes the end of the road. We stand at the sheer rock wall we call death. It is the end of our world, for it is the end of life."
Because Jesus Christ has been raised from the dead and we have through him received the gift of eternal life, we find a way up and over that wall of rock. Jesus said, "I am the resurrection and the life; he who believes in me, though he die, yet shall he live, and whoever lives and believes in me shall never die (John 11:25)."
My friends in Christ, our hope is grounded in the gift of eternal life which we receive this day - it is our way out of the valley of darkness and despair through which all of us walk at one time or another in our lives. This gift of eternal life does not begin at death. It begins now for all who worship the risen Christ. This life eternal will then continue beyond the grave into the life to come, for our souls are eternal, and in Christ we become one with the Father who made us. This is the hope and the promise which we receive this glorious Easter Day.
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- I was a Trump hater — until I learned the truth of the media’s ‘very fine’ lies
- Donald Trump chases politics and stabs evangelical supporters in the back
- Amitabh Bachchan Schools KBC 16 Contestant On View Of Unmarried Women As ‘Burden’ & We All Are In For It
- Hillsong Founders Launch ‘Online Church’ And Ask For Money
- The Sovereignty of the Latter-day Saints
- Who Is Dan Bilzerian? The Israel-Obsessed, Jew-Hating Misogynist That Elon Musk Protects
- A Shroud of Evidence
- There Never Was a Pro-Life Case for Trump
- Donald Trump and the Sovereign Rights of God
- How a Church Fought Back Against a Liberal Takeover — And Won
- St. Teresa of Ávila's Body Remains Incorrupt After Almost 5 Centuries
- Faith of My Fathers
- Chinese Christians are the Canary in the Coal Mine
- Mohamad Jebara, 'Reclaimer' of the Quran
- Algerian Man Charged Over Synagogue Arson Attack in France
- Religion is America's Mighty Engine of Charitable Goodness
